Large number of people in North-East India are followers of Islam. Assam is one such state whose western regions like Kamrup and Goalpara had early contacts with the Islamic world because of the routes and passes through the mountains which connected the region with China and Burma. But it is interesting that before the 13th century there was no record of Islam being a dominant religion in the region. Yet today almost thirty per cent of the population of Assam alone follows Islam.
In 1205 A.D., Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded Assam, and this event created the starting point from when the early migration of Muslims started. It was after his invasion of Kamrup, that traces of followers of Islam came to be found in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam. After his invasion, other invaders from North India continued their struggle to capture Assam, and it ended in 1682 A.D. at the Battle of Itakhuli between the Mughal and the Ahom forces.
Apart from these invasions, there are many reasons that led to Muslims entering the region of Assam and assimilating with the local people at different times. Assamese Muslims had a very little cultural difference with the local population.
This dissertation shall discuss the origin and development of Muslim society in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam between 1205 and 1682 A.D. It shall also try to focus on the various aspects of the Assamese Muslim society, their contributions towards Assamese society and culture, and their importance among the local people.
Key takeaways
AI
Muslim presence in Assam began with Bakhtiyar Khilji's invasion in 1205 A.D.
By 1682 A.D., repeated invasions shaped the Muslim community's development in Assam.
Assamese Muslims comprise about 30% of the state's population, reflecting significant cultural assimilation.
Muslims in Assam are categorized into Syed, Goriya, Sheikh, and Moriya, influencing social structures.
This dissertation outlines the historical growth and cultural contributions of Assamese Muslims.
Literature is the mirror of society. Its plays a very important role in the socio-cultural part of the society. The purpose of literature has always been entertained and instruct us and it is same in the context of Assamese literature. The selected topic is very much important in the present-day era. The pivotal role played by the great Muslim literature figure of Assam is very much unknown to the common books reading public of Assam. Therefore, my core intention is to bring the focus on the Muslim's contribution to Assamese literature to make it splendid and enormous to the modern-day literature.
This research focuses on two main topics. The first is the lack of attention to the emergence of Islam in Bengal, according to this study. The second concern is the early interactions of Muslim Arabs and Turks with the Bengal region. When analysing the initial entry of these two groups into the area and their subsequent activities, it is observed that they differ vastly. Before the advent of Islam, Arabs were accustomed to travelling to various regions, including Bengal, for trade purposes. Over time, Arab traders expanded their commercial activities with Bengal ports and contributed to spreading Islam. On the other hand, Central Asian Turks also attempted to connect the Bengal region to themselves through various activities over time. Therefore, there is a need for more in-depth research on this subject. Methodologically, this research evaluates historical arguments and narratives through qualitative research. Moreover, this study relies primarily on secondary sources in Bangla and English. Where necessary, classical Arabic sources will also be taken into consideration. In this way, the research offers a unique perspective.
A number of colleagues at the Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, University of Copenhagen, have engaged in discussions throughout the long editorial process. We offer our special thanks to Associate Professor Kenneth Zysk for help in identifying the Sanskrit quotes in the Mahabharata. And at other moments, Associate Professors Trine Brox and Ildiko Beller-Hann xi Preface have offered valuable advice. Peter B. Andersen wants to express his gratitude to the Department for allowing him to allocate some research time to this project and for support for trips to India to prepare the publication of the book. Finally, we thank, with great respect, the four foundations whose generous support made publication of the present book possible: Dronning Margrethes og Prins Henriks Fond, G.E.C. Gads Fond, Lillian og Dan Finks Fond and VELUX FONDEN in memory of Halfdan Siiger's work.
This research analyzes the role of Turks in the socio-cultural development of Bengal during the Sultanate Period (1204-1525). The study showed that Turkish Muslims contributed significantly to the establishment of fundamental rights in Bengal, such as protecting the rights of people of all faiths, social equality, a fair judiciary, and security. Moreover, the teachings and campaign of Sufis against injustice, including the caste system, social inequality, intolerance, raised public consciousness and people of different religions became interested in Islam as they were fascinated by Sufis' generosity, humility, and normal lifestyle. Followers of all religions were given the opportunity to participate in administrative activities based on merit, generosity, and cooperation provided to other religions; as a result, communal harmony and religious tolerance were achieved. The universal education system was introduced as well as Bengali language and literature were developed. Scholars...
D.K.Chakrabarti and M.Lal ed., History of Ancient India, Vol. 5, Political History and Administration, 2014
[Whatever may be the starting historical dynasty of the Assamese inscriptions, there is little doubt that the political chronology of Assam should date from the period when the first evidence of its early history appears in its archaeological record. In an exposed river section of Tezpur, the profile of a terracotta ring-well is clear and it is also in the Tezpur ruins that one notices potsherds of indisputably pre-Christian era. Corroborating evidence has also appeared in the recent find of Sunga-Kushan terracottas in the Ambari area of Guwahati. We do not have any doubt that the Brahmaputra valley was very much a part of the Mauryan orbit.]
ASPECTS OF MUSLIM SOCIETY IN ASSAM (1205 TO 1682 A.D.) DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF SCHOOL OF HISTORICAL STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS BY RIPUNJAY NATH RAJGIR, NALANDA May 2019
i I would like to dedicate this thesis to my beloved mother Basanti Nath.
ii DECLARATION This dissertation entitled "Aspects of Muslim Society in Assam (1205 to 1682 A.D.)" is based on my original research and has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any other degree or diploma. Signature of the candidate Place and Date Certified that the above declaration is true to the best of my knowledge. Name and Signature of the Dissertation Supervisor Date Signature of the Dean, School of Historical Studies Date
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This dissertation would not have been possible without the essential and courteous support from my supervisor Dr. Kashshaf Ghani, Assistant Professor, School of Historical Studies, Nalanda University, Rajgir, Bihar. His comments, insights, and willingness motivated me during the process of writing and re-writing this dissertation. I am grateful to all the professors in SHS department, who nurtured me during the past two years. I want to acknowledge the authority of our university for providing favourable environment and facilities to complete my studies. I would also like to express my gratitude towards Dr. Yann- Pierre Montelle, Visiting Professor, School of Historical Studies, Nalanda University for his constant encouragement while formulating this thesis. I would also like to thank Mridula Goswami Thakur, retired Professor, Jorhat College, and Barnali Sarma Kotoky, Associate Professor, Jorhat College for their constant support from the past six years. Finally, this undertaking would not have been possible without the continuous support of my family and friends who in one way or other showed their support. Their contributions are greatly appreciated and sincerely acknowledged. Thank You
iv Abstract Large number of people in North-East India are followers of Islam. Assam is one such state whose western regions like Kamrup and Goalpara had early contacts with the Islamic world because of the routes and passes through the mountains which connected the region with China and Burma. But it is interesting that before the 13th century there was no record of Islam being a dominant religion in the region. Yet today almost thirty per cent of the population of Assam alone follows Islam. In 1205 A.D., Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded Assam, and this event created the starting point from when the early migration of Muslims started. It was after his invasion of Kamrup, that traces of followers of Islam came to be found in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam. After his invasion, other invaders from North India continued their struggle to capture Assam, and it ended in 1682 A.D. at the Battle of Itakhuli between the Mughal and the Ahom forces. Apart from these invasions, there are many reasons that led to Muslims entering the region of Assam and assimilating with the local people at different times. Assamese Muslims had a very little cultural difference with the local population. This dissertation shall discuss the origin and development of Muslim society in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam between 1205 and 1682 A.D. It shall also try to focus on the various aspects of the Assamese Muslim society, their contributions towards Assamese society and culture, and their importance among the local people.
v CONTENTS Acknowledgement iii Abstract iv Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….1-5 Chapter I An Overview of Assam in the Thirteenth Century: Origin and Growth of the Muslim Population......................................................................................6 1.1 The Ahom Kingdom: An Introduction……………………………………………..7-9 1.2 Origin and Growth of the Muslim Community in Assam………………………….9-10 1.2.1 Muslim Invasions………………………………………………………………….10-12 1.2.2 Religious Propagation and Conversion……………………………………………12-13 1.2.3 Coming of Muslim Artisans and Learned Men ………………….……………….13-14 1.2.4 Migration ………………………………………………………………………….14-16 Chapter II Formation of the Assamese Muslim Society……………………………………………17 2.1 Kinship…………………………………………………………………………….17-18 2.2 Categorization of the Muslims of Assam………………………………………….19 2.2.1 Syeds………………………………………………………………………………19 2.2.2 Goriya……………………………………………………………………………..19-20
vi 2.2.3 Sheikh……………………………………………………………………………..20 2.2.4 Moriya…………………………………………………………………………….20-25 Chapter III Role of Muslims in the Assamese Society………………………………………………26 3.1 Ajan Fakir…………………………………………………………………………27-28 3.2 Bagh Hazarika…………………………………………………………………….28-29 3.3 Muhammad Ali……………………………………………………………………29 3.4 Rokh Khan…………………………………………………………………………29-34 3.5 Muslim Women of Assam…………………………………………………………34-36 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...37-40 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………..………..41-42
1 Introduction India is a vastly populated and culturally diverse country where people follow many religions. Therefore ethnic fusion and cultural inter-mingling can be seen among these people and communities from centuries. Majority of the population in India are Hindus, while Muslims constitute the most significant religious minority forming of 14.23% of the total population. They are scattered in different states of the country from a high concentration of 96.58% in Lakshadweep, 68.31% in Jammu and Kashmir, and 34.22% in Assam. The Muslim population is also lower in states like Sikkim 1.62% and Mizoram 1.35%. 1 The Muslims are an integral part of India’s socio-cultural and politico-economic milieu. When we speak of the Muslims, we generally think about one religious community. But if we explore carefully we can see class differentiation within the Muslim community. Based on sectarian grounds Muslims are divided into two sects- Shia, and Sunni. Similarly based on culture and language Muslims are divided into several categories and sects. Like in other parts of the world we too can find both Shia and Sunni Muslims in India. But unlike other parts of the world the Shia and Sunni Muslims of India live peacefully. On the other hand, based on culture and language Muslims of India are divided into several categories. The Muslims of Assam or the Assamese Muslims too are categorized into several local categories like Goriya, Moriya, Sayed, Sheikh, etc. The origin of the Muslim population in Assam dates back to the last decade of the twelfth century. There are four significant factors responsible for the growth of the Muslim community in Assam. These are: (i) Muslim invasions; (ii) propagation and conversion; (iii) coming of 1 Census of India: Religion. Accessed January 25, 2019. http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census
2 Muslim artisans and learned men; (iv) migration. 2 It is interesting to know that before the thirteenth century there was not a single trace of Muslims living in Assam. It was only after the attack of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1205 A.D. that traces of Muslims came to be found in Assam. Khilji’s attack was remarkable in the history of Assam because it was followed by other Muslim invasions into Assam, especially the Brahmaputra valley for a long period of almost five hundred years. Before the attack of Bakhtiyar Khilji, various Muslim traders and travelers can be seen to be in contact with the region. But, after the Turkish invasion of Kamrup, traces of followers of Islam can be found in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam. It was after this Turkish attack, that other Muslim invaders from North India continued their struggle to capture the entire Brahmaputra valley of Assam which was the centre of North-East India. The climax was reached in 1682 A.D. at the Battle of Itakhuli between the Mughals and the Ahom forces. 3 During the repeated Muslim invasions into the Brahmaputra valley of Assam, the armies from North India had to build their camps in the outskirt areas of the region. Over time they settled in many areas of western Assam as war soldiers and also as prisoners of war. The North Indian Muslim rulers continued their invasions and tried to enter eastern Assam which was then ruled by the Ahoms. One of the remarkable invasions of this time was the attack of the Afghan general Turbak Khan who came with his army from Gaur to invade Assam in the third decade of the sixteenth century. He was the first Muslim commander who was successful in entering the eastern part of the Brahmaputra valley. He was defeated by Ahom King Suhungmung, and the Muslim soldiers who accompanied him had to stay as prisoners of war in the eastern part of 2 Rabindra Das, “The Muslims of Assam: A Critical Study.” IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science 19 (2014): 96 3 Hemchandra Goswami, eds. Purani Asom Buranji. (Gauhati: Anusandhan Samiti, 1922), 158-160
3 Assam. Later when the Ahom king released these soldiers, they settled in parts of eastern Assam. This constituted the first settlement of Muslims in the eastern part of Assam. The conflicts to capture the Brahmaputra valley intensified with the arrival of the Mughals in the seventeenth century into the politics of Assam. The Ahom-Mughal conflicts lasted for almost a century. It started in 1615 A.D. and ended in 1682 A.D. at the Battle of Itakhuli. Within this period the Mughals led close to eighteen invasions against Assam, but they could not secure a permanent hold in the Brahmaputra valley. During this period many Mughal soldiers entered western Assam and settled in different parts of the region. The migration of Mughal soldiers to the eastern part of Assam occurred during the attack of Nawab Mir Jumla in 1662 A.D. His forces marched till Gargaon, the Ahom capital, and they settled in different parts of eastern Assam. This event is regarded as the second big wave of Muslim settlement after the settlement of the soldiers who accompanied Turbak. In 1630 A.D. a great saint named Ajan Pir or Shah Miran, who was originally believed to be from Baghdad, entered Assam along with his companions to preach Islam. There were also many invaders like Malik Yuzbak Tughril Khan who tried to enter the region with his army to propagate Islamic faith among the local people. He invaded Kamrup and erected a mosque to celebrate his victory. In the seventeenth century, Nawab Mir Jumla invaded the region and had forcefully converted many people into Islam, but the pirs and saints like Ajan Pir propagated Islam along the principles of love. The Ahom kings patronized the Muslim saints and pirs and created an appropriate environment for the propagation of Islam in their kingdom. Muslims in this north eastern part of India were different from the Muslims in other parts of India in their social and cultural life. These Muslims got assimilated into the Assamese society
4 by intermixing with the local people through marriage. They organized their community following the model of the existing Assamese Hindu society. Even though Islam does not support the caste system, still we can see traces of the caste system prevalent among the Muslims of Assam. But it was not rigidly structured. These settled Muslims adopted the Assamese language as their mother tongue. They began to celebrate the Assamese festivals like Bihu; take part in the various rituals and marriage ceremonies; they started to wear Assamese dress and ornaments, etc. They still preserve many local folk customs like other Assamese Hindus. There was a great sense of unity between the Assamese Muslims and the Hindus of the Brahmaputra valley which can be seen till the present day. This dissertation shall discuss the origin and development of Muslim society in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam within the time frame of 1205 to 1682 A.D. through their settlement and population distribution in the Brahmaputra valley. The following chapters will focus on various aspects of the Assamese Muslim society, their contribution towards the Assamese society and culture, and their importance among the local people. The first chapter shall give a brief overview of the thirteenth century Assam. It shall give an introduction of the Ahom kingdom and discuss in details the major factors responsible for origin and growth of the Muslim community in Assam. The second chapter shall discuss the formation of the Assamese Muslim society, which was designed following the structure of the Assamese Hindu society. This chapter shall look into the style of kinship and the importance of kinship in the Muslim society. It shall also discuss the categorization of the Muslims of Assam and the role of these different categories in the Assamese society.
5 The third chapter shall discuss the role of Muslims in the Assamese society. It shall discuss some of the legendary historical characters like Ajan Fakir, Bagh Hazarika, Muhammad Ali, etc. and show how the Muslim community assimilated local traditions, contributed towards the development of Assamese society and culture. The later section of this chapter shall discuss about the Muslim women focusing on the level of localization and their role in the Assamese society. The history of the Muslims who came to Assam from 1205 to 1682 A.D. is limited because of lack of materials and also due to the less number of research work done in this field. The question of who are the Assamese Muslims is still unanswered because they entered the region at different time and from different places. The contribution of the Muslim community towards the development of the region cannot be ignored. Although they came from different places, still they did not consider themselves as foreigners and adapted the Assamese way of living. It is necessary to know about the aspects of the Assamese Muslim society which was formed from 1205 to 1682 A.D.
6 Chapter I An Overview of Assam in the Thirteenth Century: Origin and Growth of the Muslim Population Assam had been isolated from the rest of the Indian subcontinent from the ancient times till its British occupation in the nineteenth century. Though the area lies separated, still it played a significant role in human migration through its numerous mountain passes which connected regions like Burma and China with the rest of the Indian subcontinent. 4 Four ancient routes connected Assam with Bengal through which most of the migration and immigration had taken place. Three routes pass through the land and one through the water. The water route and two land routes pass through Goalpara, one of the land routes pass through Guwahati and Ranigaon. The fourth route passes through Silchar connecting Kamrup, Khashi hills and Sylhet. 5 The ancient kingdom of Kamrupa, ruled by the Pala kings, was slowly undergoing a process of disintegration by the beginning of the thirteenth century. The whole of Assam, from the eastern- most Sadiya region to the river Karatoya in the west, disintegrated into several kingdoms. The Ahoms started their rule in the Eastern part of Assam, the Koch ruled in the West, the Chutiya kings ruled in the North-Eastern part, the Kacharis ruled in the Southern region, and a class of local chieftains called the Bhuyas ruled in the central part of Assam. There was a constant conflict for power among these dynasties which affected the political order of the state. 6 The rise of the Ahom kingdom helped to restore the political stability of the region as they incorporated the entire state under their rule. 4 Sanjeeb Kakoty, Science, Technology and Social Formation in Medieval Assam. (New Delhi: Cambridge University Press India Pvt. Ltd., 2012), 36-38 5 M Kar, “Muslim Immigration to Assam.” Social Scientist 8, no. 7 (1980): 67 6 E.A. Gait, A History of Assam. (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1906), 34-43
7 The Ahom Kingdom: An Introduction The Ahoms were offshoots of the great Tai or Shan race. The Shans are the outcome of an intermingling amongst Negritos, Mons, and Chinese. 7 The Ahoms came to Assam from Upper Burma, a place called Maulung and their kingdom is called Pong. Chaolung Sukafa accompanied by 1080 men left his country, crossed the Patkai ranges and reached Assam in 1228 A.D. 8 He established his kingdom by fighting battles and also by peaceful means like matrimonial relationships with the local tribes such as the Morans and the Borahis. The Ahoms established their kingdom at Charaideo in 1228 A.D. and started expanding. 9 The Ahoms were beginning to establish their rule in eastern Assam in the thirteenth century. On the other hand, the Muslims started entering Western Assam during the same time. The Ahoms encountered the Muslims only in the year 1527 during the reign of King Suhungmung. 10 He was one of the remarkable Ahom kings who ascended the throne in 1497. He was also known as Swarga Narayan. He was the first Ahom king to take Hindu name and follow Hinduism. 11 Before Suhungmung the Ahoms followed their Pagan religion, and they were said to be the worshipper of demons. 12 During the reign of Suhungmung, the influence of the Brahmans can be seen in the Ahom kingdom which fascinated him to follow Hinduism. 13 He defeated most of the tribes of Assam including the Chutiyas and the Kacharis, subjugated them under the Ahom kingdom and became one of the greatest Ahom kings of all time. 7 Ibid., 2 8 S. K. Bhuyan, eds. Satsari Assam Buranji. Guwahati: Publication Department, (Guwahati: Dept. of Publication, Gauhati University, 1960), 11-13 9 L. W. Shakespear, History of Upper Assam, Upper Burmah and North-Eastern Frontier. (London: Macmillan and Co. Limited, 1914. Accessed February 18, 2018), 28 10 Gait, A History of Assam, 87-88 11 Ibid., 83 12 Shakespear, History of Upper Assam, 28 13 Gait, A History of Assam, 83
8 The Ahoms ruled for almost six hundred years, i.e. from 1228 A.D. to 1826 A.D., and was one of the most powerful dynasties of Assam. Within this period they had their hold in almost every part of modern-day Assam, including parts of Nagaland. After arriving in Assam the Ahoms adopted the Assamese language. They abandoned their tribal dialect called Tai. Following their example, other tribes like the Rabhas, Kacharis, etc. also adopted the Assamese language. 14 Many sources suggest that the modern-day name of the province Assam, which usually means “undefeated” or “conquerors”, is derived from the word Ahom. 15 Some sources suggest that the term ‘Ahom’ became ‘Asom’ or ‘Axom’ and then finally ‘Assam’. If we see the history of Assam, we do not find mention of the word ‘Assam’ in any ancient text. It can only be found after the coming of the Ahoms, and its extensive use can be traced from the fifteen-sixteen centuries. The Ahoms had a tradition of writing history in the form of Buranjis, so their ruling period is well recorded in these Buranjis. They were written to keep the records of the Ahom kingdom, but they also describe the neighbors of the Ahom Kingdom which include the Chutiyas, Kacharis, and the Twipara Kingdom. These Buranjis are one of the important sources which tell us about the history of Assam. They were first written on the instructions of the Ahom king Sukapha after the establishment of the Ahom kingdom in 1228 A.D. The Ahoms had established good relations with the Manipuris, the Jaintias, Sylhet, and other frontier tribes. The Ahoms also had good relations with the ruler of Gaur, but from time to time their relations also turned bitter. During the Ahom rule, many Muslims came and settled in Assam. The Ahom kings promoted communal harmony and presented a favorable environment 14 Ibid., 2 15 B.K. Barua, A Cultural History of Assam. (Guwahati: Publication Board, 1950), 4
9 for Muslim immigrants. So, during their rule, the maximum number of Muslim migration took place into Assam, and these chains of migration and immigration stopped with the Battle of Itakhuli in 1682 A.D. Origin and Growth of the Muslim Community in Assam The first contact of Muslims with old Kamrupa or Assam was through the occupation of Bengal by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1198 A.D. But, it was not the first time that Assam was having contact with the Islamic world. Before Bakhtiyar Khilji many pir, ulema, dervish, etc. came to Assam in the eleventh and the twelfth centuries. 16 There was a route through Kamrupa connecting China known as Rajgarh Ali through which many Muslim traders travelled. There is also mention of a name Bhajan, who was a Brahman of Lakhnauti. He was converted to Islam during the early part of the thirteenth century. The Deodhai Asom Buranji also mentions that the Chutiya kingdom of eastern Assam had friendly relations with the Sultan of Gauda in the first half of the thirteenth century. 17 The origin of the Muslim population in Assam dates back to the last decade of the twelfth century. There are four significant factors responsible for the growth of the Muslim community in Assam: 1. Muslim invasions. 2. Propagation and conversion. 3. Coming of Muslim artisans and learned men. 16 Ibid., 5-6 17 Das, “A Critical Study,” 98
10 4. Migration. 18 Muslim Invasions Muslim invasions of Assam started in 1205 A.D. with the invasion of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji. In 1205 A.D. Bakhtiyar Khilji’s invasion into Tibet annihilated parts of Assam. As per the ‘Kanai barasi bua sil’ rock inscription, it is mentioned that Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded Kamrupa in 1205 A.D. 19 He was helped by a Mech chief named Ali Mech, who was converted to Islam by Khilji. 20 On entering Kamrup, Khilji was warned by the Raja of Kamrup not to march towards Tibet at that time of the year. Khilji did not listen to the Raja and continued his march which made the Raja angry, and he attacked the forces of Khilji. 21 Prithu the Raja of Kamrupa defeated Khilji 22 and some of his soldiers decided to stay back in Assam, and they became the first generation of Muslim settlers in Assam. 23 Udayon Mishra mentions that Assamese people are accommodating towards other communities, within their society. So, it was easy for this group of Muslims to assimilate themselves within the emerging Assamese nationality as Asamiya Musalmans. 24 Following Khilji’s campaign, Muslim invasions into Assam continued for almost the next five hundred years. 25 One of the important invasions was of Malik Yuzbak Tughril Khan. The desire to spread Islamic faith inspired his campaign of 1256-57. He erected a mosque in the Goalpara 18 K. A. Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam. (Guwahati: EBH Publishers, 2010), 3 19 Ibid., 5-6 20 Minhaj-ud-din Maulana, Abu-Umar-i-Usman, Tabakat-i-Nasiri. Raverty, H.G., Trans. (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2006), 560-561 21 Ibid., 564-570 22 Upen Rabha Hakcham, and Md. Abdul Mozid Sheikh, eds. Asamar Musalman Sampraday: Samanvay Aru Samaharan. (Guwahati: Chandra Prakash, 2018), 4 23 Das, “A Critical Study,” 96 24 Udayon Misra, “Immigration and Identity Transformation in Assam.” Economic and Political Weekly 34 (1999): 1264 25 Kar, “Immigration to Assam, ” 67-68
11 region of western Assam to celebrate his victory. Records found in the Buranjis states that parts of Goalpara and Kamrup remained under the authority of the Gauda Sultan from the fourteenth century until the mid fifteenth century. 26 Rabindra Das mentions that the area remained under the Sultan of Gauda from the time of Ghiyassudin Bahadur Shah's invasion in 1320-21 in the southwestern part of the Brahmaputra valley. Later the Kamata king Mriganko conquered the entire region to the east of the river Korataya, in 1407 with the help of the Ahom monarch Sudangpha. 27 The settlement of Muslims in the eastern region of Assam began from 1530, with the invasion of Turbak. The Ahom king Suhungmung defeated Turbak, and the war prisoners were later allowed to settle in different parts of the state. These Muslims became the first to settle in the eastern valley of the Brahmaputra. 28 They later came to be known as the Morias, 29 and they took the profession of brass work. 30 The second phase of Muslim influx into Assam occurred with the Koch-Mughal alliance in the seventeenth century. During the rule of Mughals in Koch Hajo, they brought around 10,000 to 12,000 soldiers to settle and rule peacefully in that region. After the annexation of Koch Hajo by the Mughals, Koch Hajo and Guwahati became important centers of Muslim settlement in North East India. The first wave of immigration intensified with the Ahom-Mughal wars from 1614 to 1682. During this time the soldiers who had migrated to Assam left their families back home, and they married non-Muslim Assamese women. 31 These Muslims occupied a major part of 26 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 6 27 Das, “A Critical Study,” 97 28 Ibid., 97 29 The word ‘Moria’ means to beat something in Assamese. The Muslims who work with bell metal may be called ‘Morias’ because of the way in which they design their wares by beating. 30 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 89 31 Ibid., 8-9
12 western Assam and they established their court near Gauripur at Rangamati and Hajo which is in Kamrup district. Later on, they stayed freely and mingled with the local people. 32 The second big wave of migrants to Eastern Assam entered during the invasion of Nawab Mir Jumla in 1662 A.D. His forces were able to march till Gargaon, the Ahom capital. 33 During his invasion, the Assamese people encountered Europeans for the first time. Mir Jumla’s army contained many European officers, among whom the Portuguese predominated. Mir Jumla was the only Muslim invader to capture the Ahom capital for six months, but due to the hardships created by the Ahom forces during the rainy season, he too had to leave Assam. Soon the Ahoms took over the region and continued with their rule. 34 It is remarkable that during Mir Jumla’s invasion many Muslims entered eastern Assam. A number of them settled in major places of eastern Assam like Jorhat, Golaghat, Sivsagar, and Dibrugarh. During Major Jenkin's enquiry in 1838, some Muslims of Jorhat traced their ancestry to those who had accompanied the 14 Amirs under Nawab Mir Jumla. 35 Religious Propagation and Conversion In 1630 A.D., a saint named Shah Milan, popularly known as Azan Fakir or Ajan Pir, who was from Baghdad, came to Assam. Ajan Pir was accompanied by his brother Nabi Pir (Saleh Pir), and their companions Khundokar Pir (Sayed Abdul Ghani), and Bandor Pir (Sowal Pir). 36 He was primarily responsible for the conversion of the local Assamese people into Islam. He 32 Das, “A Critical Study,” 97 33 S. K. Bhuyan, eds. Annals of the Delhi Badshahate. (Gauhati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, 1947), 155-156 34 Gait, A History of Assam, 128-137 35 Kar, “Immigration to Assam,” 68-69 36 Ismail Hossain, Asomor Musalmanor Oitijya Aru Sanskriti. (Guwahati: Banalata, 2015), 19
13 composed Zikrs and Jaris 37 and was able to convert a large section of indigenous population to Islam. 38 Azan Fakir’s teachings were greatly influenced by the teachings of Sankardev who preached Neo Vaishnavism in Assam in the fifteenth-sixteenth century. The assimilation of Muslims into Assamese society has considerable cultural roots. 39 Ahom kings patronized Muslim preachers and funded them to perform their activities like setting up Madrasas, going for Hajj, etc. 40 There were also some invaders who were said to have entered Assam with the intention to preach Islamic faith. In the previous section on ‘the Muslim invasions’ we have seen that the invasion of Malik Yuzbak Tughril Khan in 1256-57 was intended with the desire of spreading Islam in the region. During Mir Jumla’s capture of the Ahom kingdom people were forcefully converted to Islam. It is mentioned that Mir Jumla pillaged the temple of Devargaon or present day Dergaon and made the priest embrace Islam. 41 Coming of Muslim Artisans and Learned Men The Ahom kings encouraged people from different parts of India to settle in their territory and contribute towards the growth of their country. They allowed Muslims to follow their faith, and in the Ahom kingdom Muslims formed part of the Assamese society. 42 The Ahom rulers imported skilled Muslim artisans and learned men into the region. These men were engaged in different activities like embroidery, engraving, wood carving, canon casting, and similar fine works. 37 Zikrs and Jaris are types of devotional songs composed by Azan Fakir in Assam. These songs draw local musical traditions and they are similar to Borgeets which were composed by the neo-Vaishnavite saint Srimanta Sankardev in 16 th century in Assam. 38 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 13 39 Misra, “Transformation in Assam,” 1269 40 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 13 41 S. L. Baruah, A Comprehensive History of Assam. (New Delhi: Munshiram Mohanlal Publishers, 1985), 265 42 Kar, “Immigration to Assam,” 69
14 The Ahom rulers created important posts for these men like Khanikar khel and Nawab Deka. 43 The Khanikar khel belonged to the group who were engaged in masonry works like construction of buildings, etc. We can still see the impact of Islamic architectural style in some of the temples of Assam. The Darji or tailoring profession belonged only to the Muslims, and it was the Muslims who brought this profession for the first time into Assam during the reign of the Ahom kings. Even today there are a large number of Muslims in Upper Assam who like other communities use their surnames as Hazarika, Saikia, Barua, Khargharia, Barbora, etc. 44 The Ahom army contained many Muslim soldiers who fought against the Mughals and they had knowledge of Mughal warfare. The Hindus and the Muslims fought together against the Mughals. The great Battle of Saraighat of 1671 gives concrete evidence to such instances. Legendary careers of Muslim officers in the Ahom army like Bagh Hazarika and Rupai Goriya display the level of patriotism and high position of the Assamese Muslims. There are still descendants from Muslim noble families in the Golaghat region of Assam. 45 Migration The migration of Muslims into Assam started in the thirteenth century and has been a continuous process thereafter. Such waves of migration and settlement took place during the various wars between the Ahoms and the North Indian Muslim rulers, and forms one of the important dimensions in the history of Assam. Within the time frame of 1205 A.D. to 1682 A.D. we can see many large and small scale migrations into Assam. These immigrants have assimilated themselves among the local people and have contributed towards enriching the socio-cultural stock of Assam through their various skills and activities. Those Muslims who had adapted the 43 Das, “A Critical Study,” 97 44 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 18-20 45 Ibid., 16-17
15 Assamese way of living and call Assam as their homeland are called Tholua Musalman or the Assamese Muslims. 46 Migration of Muslims continued after the British occupation of Assam in 1826. In this period, not only Muslims but also other people migrated to the Brahmaputra valley of Assam. Most of the barren lands were turned into agricultural lands. A large section of immigrants got engaged with the tea garden sector of Assam. Most of the Muslim people came from Mymensingh which is situated in present day Bangladesh. These people constituted of mostly farmers who took up to work in the barren lands of the Brahmaputra valley. These migrations first happened to the western part of Goalpara. The people at first came alone and then they invited their families. Next to Goalpara they migrated to the Nowgong district. The Muslim population of some places like Lakhimpur, Darrang, Kamrup, and Sibsagar increased in this period. 47 The migrations of Muslims to Assam from East Pakistan and later Bangladesh continued even after independence. In many districts of Assam the Hindus became minority. The immigration from Bangladesh (both Hindu and Muslim) in the recent years has been creating many changes in the state and also creating problems like violence among social groups, etc. 48 The chain of migration and immigration of the Muslims to Assam started in the thirteenth century and it forms one of the important dimensions in the history of Assam. They have migrated in different phases, assimilated among the local people, and contributed to the growth of the socio-cultural world of Assam. They have contributed for the economic development of the country through their various skills and activities. The Muslim soldiers of Assam fought wars against the Mughals and tried to keep Assam free from other political influences. The Muslims 46 Ibid., 20-24 47 Kar, “Immigration to Assam,” 70-72 48 Misra, “Transformation in Assam,” 1271
16 of Assam never thought of as foreigners, indeed they are an inseparable and integral part of the present Assamese political and socio-cultural milieu.
17 Chapter II Formation of the Assamese Muslim Society The Muslims of Assam are an indispensable part of the Assamese socio-cultural milieu. They are one of the prestigious communities of Assam. They entered Assam at different times due to religious, political, social, and economic reasons. Muslims who settled in the Brahmaputra valley adopted the Assamese language as their mother-tongue and took the Assamese identity. 49 The Assamese Muslims can be categorized according to their social status into Syed, Goriya, Sheikh, and Moria. 50 The Muslims entered Assam from 1205 A.D. with the attack of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji. He was defeated, and the soldiers who came with him settled in Bajali, Bar Nagar, Gureshwar, Rangia, and Dhamdhama regions of North Kamrup. After Khilji, invasions to occupy the Brahmaputra valley of Assam continued for the next five hundred years. Many of the Muslim soldiers who stayed in Assam as war prisoners married Assamese girls and got mixed with the mainstream Assamese society. Some local people under the influence of Sufi masters and Muslim saints were converted as followers of Islam. 51 Kinship The Muslim society in Assam has been deeply influenced by the patterns of the predominant Assamese Hindu society. The ghar or household is the basic unit of kinship for Assamese Muslims. The nature of kinship does not remain stagnant only at the household level, instead, it goes on to higher levels like the village level. Their village leader is called as Murrabi, and these 49 Hossain, Asomor Musalmanor, 14 50 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 87 51 Hossain, Asomor Musalmanor, 14-15
18 leaders help the people to maintain harmony and peace within their community. The kinship terminology of the Muslims of lower Assam is same as the Hindus. The people settle their disputes among themselves at the village level. The role of kinfolk differs from rural and urban areas. If there is any dispute or problem, the people of the rural area rely on the kinfolk. The role of kinship among the Muslims is unique. Kinship plays an important role even in the recruitment of people because each member’s work is divided within the family. For example, the male members work in sectors like offices, farms, and factories and the female members work in the house. The system of endogamy is prevalent among the Assamese Muslims. 52 There were also a good degree of extra local kinship ties among the Muslims of Assam which can be still seen in the present society. Visits to additional local kin on several occasions can be seen, especially among the Muslims of the rural areas. Most of the other local kin are related by marriage. Certain customs and practices of the Assamese Muslims and the Assamese Hindus are similar; traditions like maintaining certain levels of the relationship among the family are identical among the Assamese Hindus and the Muslims. The kinship groups of Muslims of Assam are ghar or household and bangsa or lineage. The ghar is the basic unit, and the head of the house is the eldest male member of the family. The division of labour is based on the sex of the person. The bangsa is based on common ancestry. Bangsa may consist of several members. The patrilinieal lineage or the father’s lineage is of great importance, whereas the matrilineal lineage becomes more influential in some cases. 53 52 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 79-82 53 Ibid., 82-86
19 Categorization of the Muslims of Assam According to the Islamic social order, the concept of caste is not supported, but in the Assamese Muslim society, the caste system is present. As mentioned above the Muslims of Assam are categorized into Syed, Goriya, Sheikh, and Moria. Syeds The Syeds belonged to the first caste category who claim their decent from the family of Prophet Muhammad and his son in law Ali. They claim a higher position in the Muslim society. The lineages of Ajan Pir and his brother Nabi Pir (Saleh Pir), and their companions Khundokar Pir (Sayed Abdul Ghani), and Bandor Pir (Sowal Pir) are Syeds. They came to Assam in 1634 A.D. to preach Islam. They entered Kamrup, and from there they went to Gargaon, the capital of the Ahoms and settled in Sunpura and preached Islam. While coming from Baghdad they did not bring any women with them, so they married local Assamese girls and adapted themselves to the Assamese way of living. 54 Their position is regarded as similar to the Brahmans of the Hindu society. They had a sound knowledge of the Quran, and they also avoided the plough like the Assamese Brahmins. The Goriyas and the Sheikhs place them next to Syeds, and the Morias were considered of the lower caste because of their occupation. 55 Goriya The Goriyas belonged to the second caste tier, and are generally referred to as the indigenous Assamese Muslims. Their origins are controversial, as E.A. Gait opines that Goriyas are referred 54 Hossain, Asomor Musalmanor, 18-19 55 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 94-95
20 to as those Muslims who came from Gaur, the ancient Muslim capital of Bengal. 56 But all those who came from Gaur are not referred to as Gorias, since other groups like the Syeds also came from Gaur. As a result sometimes the Syeds are also called Gorias. 57 Ismail Hossain is of the opinion that the converts are also called Goriyas because they call themselves ‘baad pora’ or ‘goriya pora’ or left behind. 58 The Goriyas are those Muslims who adopted Assamese language and culture, participated in Assamese social and political affairs and contributed towards the Assamese literature. They adopted the Assamese way of living. 59 Sheikh The Sheikhs belonged to the second category after Syeds, as a group who also traced their origin from Arab lands. The word Sheikh means ‘a leader’. In the later period the Sheikhs got mixed with the local Assamese people. Hence local converts were also called as Sheikh. In the contemporary Assamese society, almost all the Muslims who migrated and settled in Assam at the time of the Ahom rule are called as Sheikhs. 60 Moriya The Moriyas belonged to the indigenous Assamese society. They were the war prisoners who came as soldiers with Turbak in 1530 A.D. 61 They were first given the work of cutting grass for the king’s elephants, but they were found unfit for the work. Then they were given t he plough, but they did not know anything about agriculture. Then the king decided to free them, but on getting the freedom, they did not return to their country and decided to stay back in Assam. They 56 Gait, A History of Assam, 92 57 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 88 58 Hossain, Asomor Musalmanor, 19 59 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 88 60 Ibid., 88-89 61 Gait, A History of Assam, 92
21 took on to brass metal work, and they were known as the Moriyas. 62 The Moriyas made their settlement in both eastern and western parts of the Brahmaputra Valley. They belonged from lower social order. They are the earliest Muslim settlers of the Brahmaputra valley. The religious lives of the Moriyas were different from Muslims. They began to drink strong liquor and eat pork meat. For this reason, they have been regarded as low caste Muslims. They were the first Muslim settlers of Eastern Assam, and they were the first to adopt Assamese customs, manners and mode of life. 63 The Mughal invaders who came to Assam despised them. Mir Jumla’s chronicler Shihabuddin Talish said that they were Muslims only in name and knew nothing about Islam. 64 Till the nineteenth century, there were a very small number of Moriya Muslim settlers in Assam. The census report of 1872 provides data that the total number of Moriya population in Assam was 2001. They resided in the districts of Goalpara, Darrang, Nagaon, Sibsagar, and Lakhimpur. Sibsagar alone consisted of 1169 Moriyas. The other Assamese Muslims maintained a social distance from the Moriyas. Their socio-political situation is unique as the Moriyas maintained unity among themselves because of their social status. They were also economically backward. The Moriya Muslims had introduced the practice of Manasa Puja or worship to goddess Manasa in Kamrup and Darrang regions of western Assam in the early medieval period. The Manasa Puja cult is not much popular in eastern Assam except in a very few places. 65 Most of the Moriyas who converted from Hinduism were said to have associated with the Manasa Puja, especially the Moriyas of the Sipajhar region of the Darrang district. 66 The Hussaini Brahmins of Bengal honored Muhammad as one of the Hindu avatars. They had contacts with the people of 62 Sarbananda Rajkumar, Itihase Soaura Chasahata Bachar. (Dibrugarh: Banalata, 2000), 528 63 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 100-104 64 Gait, A History of Assam, 140 65 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 105-108 66 Hossain, Asomor Musalmanor, 20
22 Western Assam, so the Moriyas of Western Assam may be influenced by them to introduce the concept of Manasa Puja. It is also worth mentioning that many Muslims composed hymns in praise of Siva and Parbati. There are controversies regarding the association of Moriya Muslims with the Manasa cult, but there is enough evidence to prove the association of goddess Manasa with the Moriyas. 67 In Western Assam, there were some famous Assamese Muslims who earned the title of oja or leader. They sang songs of praise to Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Even today we can find villages named Oja Bara Chuk in Mangaldoi region named after one such Oja. There was a little difference between the Assamese Hindus and the Moriya Muslims in their social customs and day to day life till the late nineteenth century. They mingled with and were assimilated within the broader Assamese socio-cultural milieu. Their marriage customs are a mixture of Assamese Hindu and Muslim rites and rituals. The decoration of the robhatali (temporary shed for the wedding ceremony), providing tea, and arranging feast at night for the people are similar to the Assamese way of marriage. Another ceremony called jaran diya (preparation of the bride) and sending gifts to the bride’s house such as sweets, betel-nuts, etc. are similar to the Assamese way of marriage. Sometimes in places like Hajo, marriages take place between the Moriya Muslims and other Muslim communities. 68 The Moriyas preserve many local folk traditions and social customs like other Muslims and Assamese Hindus. Other folk-cultural elements, such as food habits, dress and ornaments, games and amusements, and different aspects of the material culture of the Moriyas are similar to the local Assamese Muslims and non-Muslims. They also observe many local customs and practices 67 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 109 68 Ibid., 110-112
23 such as festivals and fairs of the non-Muslim neighbors. The Moriyas and other Assamese Muslims also celebrate Bihu which is the chief cultural festival of Assam. They prepare foods such as doi chira (curd and flattened rice), different types of pithas, rice-cakes, etc. with immense pleasure and enthusiasm. In the Bohag Bihu, they celebrate Goru Bihu by bathing their cows, tie the cows with new ropes, and give jag 69 in the cowshed to get rid of mosquitoes, and it also protects the cows from various diseases. The jag is given during the whole summer. 70 The Muslims of Assam follow the Hanafi School of law of the Sunni sect. They were engaged in all kinds of occupations such as service holders, businessmen, farmers and cultivators, darji or tailor, teli (a mustard oil producer), fishermen, mason, etc. The Muslims of the Brahmaputra valley have gradually adapted to the Assamese way of living through social beliefs, customs, occupation, dress, ornaments, etc. There are other Muslims such as Uzani, Bhatiya, Chaura, Dathiya, Baramasi or Sandar who reside in the erstwhile districts of Goalpara. These Muslims migrated in the nineteenth and the twentieth century from East Bengal or present-day Bangladesh. 71 There is great harmony between the Hindus and Muslims of Assam from the early period of development of Islam in the region. Mir Jumla’s chronicler was surprised t o see the Hindu- Muslim unity of Assam. The Hindus paid homage to the Muslim pirs, and the Muslims took part in the naam-kirtans 72 . In some Sattras like Chamariya in Kamrup, the Hindus and Muslims met together at the village Namghar (prayer house) to pray for the common welfare of everyone. They accepted prasad with their hands from one common basin and enjoyed it. This tradition is 69 Jag is a local term used to describe a mixture of different types of ferns and grasses. It is burnt in the evening time in the cowshed to produce smoke which keeps the mosquitoes and other flies away from the cows. 70 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 111-112 71 Ibid., 94-98 72 Naam-kirtans are described to community prayers where the entire community come together and pray for the welfare of everyone. The prayers are basically recited in the Namghars or in the Sattras.
24 still present today. Muslims and Hindus make joint pilgrimages to pay homage to the same God. The Hindus also invite Muslims to the temples and Sattras and play musical instruments. The Ahom kings encouraged such practices, and they patronized Islam by giving land grants and financial assistance to the pirs and mosques. There was also an impact on Assamese society of the Muslim ways of living like music, Mughal foods, architecture, etc. It is mentioned in the Buranjis that the Ahom king Rudra Singha had great love for Mughal music. He had sent people from Assam to Delhi to learn Mughal music. There was an environment of cultural exchange in Assam during the Ahom rule. 73 The Muslims of Assam played an important role in socializing with the local people and made the society and culture of Assam strong by adapting to it. The role played by Ajan Fakir in the field of development of language and culture of Assam is so strong that the Muslim society still continues to feel its momentum in the present day. The Muslims of Assam including Goriya, Moriya, Sayed, Sheikh, etc. celebrate the three Bihus, namely Rongali Bihu, Bhogali Bihu, and Kongali Bihu as their own cultural festival by actively taking part in it. Muslim women wear Riha-mekhela and Sador during the Bihus. Wearing of this type of cloth is compulsory even in the Muslim marriages. 74 The wearing of Hijab was not common among the Muslim women of Assam. This way we can see that Muslims right from their time of entry into Assam started the process of socializing with the local people. In spite of belonging from different backgrounds they started to build their relationships among the population of Assam. The more they got assimilated with 73 Baruah, A Comprehensive, 424-448 74 Hossain, Asomor Musalmanor, 190-193
25 the local society Assamese culture began to grow and Muslims became an indispensable part of the Assamese socio-cultural milieu.
26 Chapter III Role of the Muslims in the Assamese Society The Muslim population of Assam is an integral part of the Assamese society. The origin of the Muslim community in Assam dates back to the first decade of the thirteenth century when the Turks led by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded Kamrupa. He invaded the area with the intention of attacking Tibet and probably for controlling the trade route called the Rajgrih Ali. He was defeated, and most of his soldiers decided to stay in Assam, and settle there. 75 Similarly, as we have read in Chapter I many Muslims entered Assam during the period 1205 A.D. to 1682 A.D. due to different reasons and settled in different parts of the Brahmaputra valley. These people socialized with the local people and came to constitute a significant part of Assamese society. The coming of the Muslims to Assam created a new sphere in the traditional Assamese life. We can see the impact of Muslim presence in language, literature, painting, music, art, architecture, and various aspects of Assamese socio-cultural life. This harmony of the Muslims with the Assamese Hindus and the other tribal communities created a peaceful environment within the Assamese society. Assamese Muslims command a significant position in Assamese society. They have played important roles in the development of the Assamese society. When we speak of the contribution of the Assamese Muslims some names like Azan Fakir, Bagh Hazarika, Muhammad Ali, Rokh Khan, etc. comes to our mind. Their legendary characters are described below: 75 Ahmed, The Muslims of Assam, 257-258
Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.
References (28)
Muhammad Ali: In the Padshah Buranji it is mentioned that Muhammad Ali was a renowned scholar in the field of Arabic and Persian languages. He was from Secunderabad and accompanied Nawab Mansur Khan in his expedition to Assam. In 1682 A.D. Mansur Khan was defeated by the Ahoms and he had to leave Assam, but Muhammad Ali decided to stay in Assam. He had a chronicle on the Sultans of Delhi, and with the permission of Gorgoiyan Sandhikoi 85 he noted down most of the important events of medieval Assam and wrote the Padshah Buranji. This buranji was later translated into English by S.K. Bhuyan and named as 'Annals of the Delhi Badshahate'. 86
Rokh Khan: Rokh Khan alias Sayed Ibrahim was a Muslim poet of the Vaishnava movement of the seventeenth century. He became the disciple of a Vaishnava priest named Bitthal Nath and began to follow Vaishnavism. He wrote two masterpieces named 'Prem Batika' and 'Sujan Rokh Khan'. After writing Sujan Rokh Khan, he came to be known as 'Rokh Khan' among the people. 87
Apart from these few personalities, many others contributed immensely towards the upliftment of the Assamese Society. They have immense contribution towards the economic, political, social, and cultural development of Assam. The Muslims of Assam who came between the years 1205 to 1682 A.D. cannot be differentiated from the local Assamese Hindu people except by
Upen Rabha Haksam, and Md. Abdul Majid Sheikh, "Asomor Musalman Sampradayor Keigorakiman Borenyo Byokti," in Asamar Musalman, 562-563
Sandhikoi is a branch of the Ahom family divided by Ahom king Sukhaamphaa or Khura Rojaa (1552-1603). Gorgoiyan Sandhikoi is a sub-branch of the Sandhikoi branch.
Upen Rabha Haksam, and Md. Abdul Majid Sheikh, "Borenyo Byokti," in Asamar Musalman, 564 87 Ibid., 564
the gayon-bayon 90 of the Sattriya dance form used a particular kind of Mughal costume called pag-joma and sapkon. This was especially used among the Muslims of Mangaldoi area. In places like Ojabora-suk, Hazarikapara, etc. of Mangaldoi area, people used pag-joma and sapkon for Ojapali dance form till the end of the nineteenth century. In fact, in a village named Maroi the Muslims celebrated Maroi Puja or Manasa Puja and sang a special kind of song called Maroigeet. The Muslim dhuliyas, ojhas, deuris, etc. of the Bajali area of Kamrup did their performances in the marriages and other festivals following the Assamese Hindu way. In places like Bajali, Korkabari, Naohali, Doihingari, Kurubaha, Ohopa, Gor, Chouka, Sakol, Moroka, Dubi, Kamoibari, Bengjuli, etc. of Western Assam, the Muslim population can be observed from the time of the Mughal invasions of Assam. 91
The Muslims of Bajali area are socio-culturally different from the Muslims of other parts of Assam. Muslims of Bajali area, unlike other Assamese Muslims, perform some ritual ceremony when the menstruation of a girl starts. They organize a ceremony named Dhuwoni, which is similar to the other local Assamese Hindus. Like the Muslim society of Darrang, there were Ojhas or performers in Bajali who sang Maroigeet dedicated to goddess Manasa. Firingi Ojha of Benjuli, Suna Ojha of Gor, etc. were famous Muslim Ojhas. The Muslims of Bajali participate in various local functions like Bihu and other social organizations. 92 Similarly in other areas like Jorhat, Golaghat, Sivsagar, Dibrugarh and other areas of the Brahmaputra valley the Muslims participate in various local functions and social organizations from the medieval times. In the mid-seventeenth century, Ajan Fakir and his brother Nabi Pir went to Mangaldoi to preach Sufism in the region. Although he preached Sufism, the impact of Maroigeet, Ojapali, etc. can 90 The people who play the musical instruments like khol, taal, bahi, etc. in the Sattriya dance form are called gayon-bayon.
Sarifuddin Ahmed, "Bojalir Islamdhormiyo Homaj." Bajali Dorpon, (1987): 135-138 92 Ibid., 138 Bibliography Primary Sources Bhuyan, S. K., eds. Annals of the Delhi Badshahate. Gauhati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, 1947.
Internet Resources Census of India: Religion. Accessed January 25, 2019. http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011 census.
FAQs
AI
What factors contributed to the growth of the Muslim community in Assam?add
Research identifies four primary factors contributing to the Muslim community's growth in Assam: invasions, propagation, skilled artisans, and migration from 1205 A.D. onwards.
How did the Ahom kingdom influence Muslim immigration into Assam?add
The Ahom kings promoted communal harmony, thus facilitating significant Muslim migration, notably during Mir Jumla's invasion in 1662.
What role did Ajan Fakir play in Assamese cultural development?add
Ajan Fakir's introduction of Zikrs and Zaris in Assamese simplified Islamic teachings and bolstered Hindu-Muslim unity during the 17th century.
How are the Muslims of Assam categorized socially?add
The Assamese Muslim community is categorized into Syed, Goriya, Sheikh, and Moriya based on lineage and cultural integration.
What was the nature of the relationship between Hindus and Muslims in Assam?add
Historical accounts suggest a harmonious coexistence, with examples of joint religious practices and communal festivals indicative of cultural synthesis.
North-Eastern Hill University, Hill Univ. Shillong-793022 (India), Department Member
Ripunjay Nath is currently a Ph.D scholar at the Department of History, North Eastern Hill University Shillong. Ripunjay does research in Migration, Trade and Topics of Northeast India. Their current research is on 'Islam in Northeast India.'
Journal of Kavikulaguru Kalidas Sanskrit University, Ramtek, 2022
A large number of people in Assam are followers of Islam. It is the only state of NorthEast India which had early contacts with the Islamic world because of its routes and mountain passes which connected the region with other parts of South East Asia. Islam was introduced in Assam in the beginning of the thirteenth century with the attack of Ikhtiyar al-Din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji. It was after this event that the Muslims started migrating to the region. The Muslims entered Assam at different time due to different reasons. They entered the region as invaders, travelers, traders, Sufis, etc. Most of them settled in the region and localized themselves while others returned to the places from where they came. The Muslims who settled in the region mixed with the local people and contributed towards the growth of the Assamese society in various ways. This paper shall discuss the role that the Muslims played towards the growth of the Assamese culture, society, language, literature, etc. during the process of socialization. It shall also discuss about legendary characters such as Azan Fakir, Muhammad Ali, Rokh Khan, etc. and show their contribution towards the Assamese society.
Those who have first-hand experience of Assam will find that a sense of mutual respect and warm cordiality exists between the Hindus and the Muslims in Assam. The Muslims in Assam have been there since the last eight centuries. When one speaks of the existing cordiality between these two social groups, one has in mind mainly these early Muslim settlers of Assam. It may be recalled that there has been a large influx of Muslims from a neighbourhood, which is at the most a century old. This influx took place as a result of historical, economic and political factors. This article mainly speaks of the early Muslim settlers and their descendants. Some of the outstanding literary figures like Mofizuddin Ahmed Hazarika, freedom fighters like Md. Tayebullah, and social activists in Assam belong to the Muslim community of early origin. In respect of the dress worn by Muslim women also, there is no difference. It is identical with the Hindu women, and the interaction between the women of these two communities has been close and cordial. The Muslims celebrate Bohag Bihu, the main festival of Assam, with equal fervour with the other communities of Assam. Many Muslim families have surnames identical to Hindu families, for example the surnames such as Hazarika, Barbora, Saikia, Chaudhuri, Bora, etc. The friendship among Muslim and Hindu menfolk is also equally cordial and close. We are noticing that narrow-minded fanatic and communal elements amongst the Muslims who are active in different parts of India are raising their heads in Assam also. Occasional reports are found in the local press which says that these communal elements tend to influence the Muslim society of Assam which has co-existed peacefully and cordially with the Hindus for many centuries. In view of this, the Muslims of early origin have started organizing themselves in a manner that they do not get identified with communalistic sections. They are keen to see that their original liberal image is strengthened and their cordiality with their Hindu brethren is also further cemented. There have been reports that this liberal section of opinion is likely to organize themselves to start a campaign of strengthening the existing healthy relationship with the Hindus. The author of this article is a supporter of such a move. Dr Abu Hanifa is a teacher in Physics and is at present Head of the Department of Physics at Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukan College, Nagaon. He has also attended national and international seminars on the subject of Physics, Education and Environment. Besides his professional activities, he has also engaged himself in writing articles on socioeconomic issues, and literary and scientific subjects also. We find that this article on the Muslims of the Brahmaputra Valley provides an interesting study from the cultural and social point of view. It deals with the history and contribution of the Muslims within the broader framework of Assamese society. Dr. Abu Hanifa rightly says in the article that, " The Assamese people with their heart and mind
The Muslims of Assam have been playing a very significant and positive role in the formation and development of the Assamese society. Muslims first encountered the Brahmaputra valley in 1206 during the invasion led by Bakhtiar Khilji. A number of Muslims who came to this valley married to local women and along with them, some aboriginal Hindus become Muslim by proselytization. Therefore, their language, culture and social way of life were assimilated with Assamese Society. Though the history of the Assamese Muslim Women is rare to found and historians were remain silent about it, but whatever the historians were written about the Assamese Muslim culture from that we can understand that the social life of the Muslim women was as like as the other Assamese women. Now from few decades we can observe that the life style of the Assamese Muslim women has gradually changed. The religious criteria for defining the changing social life of the Muslim women entails certain fundamental difficulties concerning the identification of the mass of people whom in spite of certain commonness, encompass considerable diversities. It is therefore necessary to understand the change in the light of historical analysis.
This work is about the cultural elements assimilated within Islamic community and aboriginal ethnic community of Brahmaputra Valley. The cultural elements are including language, literature, women, bieliefs and ideologies, customs and traditions. Muslims who come to this valley married to local women is rare to and historians were assimilation Assamese Society. It also deals with the assemblage of Muslim community in Assam and how they adopted the customs, traditions and culture of the Brahmaputra Valley and established an intermixed culture.
By assessing the prevalent understanding of Tantra and the emergence of major Bhakti sects in Assam during the medieval period, this essay looks at the trajectory of the processes through which the social demography of the region underwent phases of formation and re-formation in the medieval period.
The presence of a very large population of Muslims in present-day Bangladesh and Indian West Bengal is remarkable. It is a region far from the Arabian 'homeland' of the Muslim tradition and is separated by nearly a thousand miles from the other large concentration of Muslims in South Asia, namely Pakistan. Various explanations have been offered, some untenable (e.g., biological descent from prolific incoming dominant groups), some plausible but partial (e.g., conversion by Sufi saints, recruitment of local inhabitants for rice cultivation by Muslim entrepreneurs). The socio-religious factor focused on in this essay is the underlying tolerant and adaptive character of the collective 'personality' of the Bengali people, many of them influenced by Buddhism. Disturbed by the twelfth-century Sena efforts to impose rigidly caste-discriminating Brahmanical orthodoxy, many, especially in northern and eastern Bengal were attracted to the more egalitarian and accommodating Islamic way of life. In Bengal, which in this paper is used in the sense of the new country of Bangladesh and the state of West Bengal in India, live one of the largest Muslim populations anywhere in the world. Their concentration is the densest in the Indian Subcontinent and their present aggregate makes them the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. This fact assumed added importance and significance in two historical happenings of the recent past: first the partition of India in 1947 and then the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971. In historical hindsight another very significant phenomenon comes to the forefront: how was the overwhelmingly Hindu-Buddhist 1 population turned into a Muslim majority population over a period of five hundred years or more of Muslim rule in the area? This question proves to be a very significant one in the social history of the region. As a result scholars working in the field (e.g., Roy 1983, Eaton 1994, Khan 1996) have done considerable research to find an answer to the question, though it must be admitted that possibly not all the interrelated phenomena have been brought to light. The present attempt is to focus on the socio-religious aspects of the question, since the question itself is social and religious at the same time. It is also assumed that there are certain aspects of the society which are deep-rooted in the history of the people and that the socio-religious attitude and aptitude of the people linger on through various phases of history. The present author is a firm believer in the 'personality' of a people and is convinced that anything new that comes into their perception is absorbed or rejected by the 'personality' they have acquired over a long period of history.
International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies, 2022
The Biates are one of the earliest hill tribes inhabiting the northeastern regions of India and speak a Tibeto-Burnman-related language. Their facial and physical features are similar to those of the Chin-Kuki-Mizo tribal group. The Biates have preserved their culture and traditions through the ages by adhering to oral tradition. Prior to the arrival of Christianity, the Biates practised animism as their primordial religion. They gradually started to discard their centuries-old rituals and practices with the emergence of Christianity and Colonial rule in India. The main purpose of this paper is to showcase the traditional socioeconomic activities of the Biate tribe in the North Cachar Hills District (present Dima Hasao) of Assam and also highlight their change and continuity throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.
The Northeast Indian state of Assam has a very long and complex history of migration, whether it be Santhals from the Chhotanagpur plateau to work in the tea plantations under the British administration, the Marwaris from Rajasthan for trade, or the Bengalis from erstwhile East Bengal, now Bangladesh, as farm hands or agricultural labourers and farmers. This has led to a complicated demography in the state. Even after it became a state in British India and decades after its formation as a state within Independent India, Assam struggles with the question of 'who is an Assamese'. This struggle has led to much turbulence in the state in the form of language movements. As the movements turned more vitriolic, communities such as the Bengalis and Nepalese began to be targeted as outsiders. Attacks on the Bengalis, and especially on the Bengali Muslim peasantry, sharpened. Factors like ethnicity, ancestry, land ownership, and economic and political issues, both local and national, intertwined to arrive at the image of the Bengali Muslim migrant as an infiltrator. The Bengali Muslim communities had migrated to the state under the aegis of the British administration as early as the 1920s and 30s to provide cheap labour as farmhands and cultivators on the silt banks and low-lying areas of the state where the indigenous Assamese would not venture. The hatred towards them may have been founded on an earlier history of migration into the state of the educated caste-Hindu Bengalis as administrative assistants to the British. However absurd it may be to conflate the Bengali Muslim peasant with this earlier figure of the Bengali babu (clerk), it has certainly gone politically unchallenged. This paper traces the root of the conflict between the language of the educated migrant and the migrant labourer, that is, Bengali, and that of the indigenous in Assam. It seeks to understand the antipathy of the Assamese towards the Bengali language and how the image of the caste-Hindu Bengali migrant interlinked with that of the Muslim Bengali rural migrant over the years to arrive at the figure of the Muslim Bengali infiltrator. It explores how language is used as a medium to seek assimilation when there is a lack of representation of the migrant community in the mainstream literature of the state. This lack is now addressed with the new generation of the community having begun to use Jabeen Yasmeen is a PhD scholar in IIT Bombay. The author would like to thank her PhD supervisor, Prof. Paulomi Chakraborty who gave feedback on this paper.
Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the sub-continent, one must note that the northwestern sub-continent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia. In that sense, the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium. What does however, make the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics, even influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though non-Muslim population was left to their own laws and customs. They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture which was mixed in nature, though different from both the ancient Indian culture and later westernized modern Indian culture. At the same time it must be noted that overwhelming majority of Muslims in India are Indian natives converted to Islam. This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures. History After the death of Harsha the Rajputs came into prominence on the political horizons of North India. The Rajputs were known for their bravery and chivalry but family feuds and strong notions of personal pride often resulted into conflicts. The Rajputs weakened each other by constant wrangling. The disunity among Rajputs allowed the foreigners (Turks) to enter India. The defeat of Prithvi Raj Chauhan (the greatest Rajput warrior of the time) at the hands of Mohammad Ghori, in the battle of Tarain 1192, marked a new chapter in the history of India.
Ripunjay Nath
