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Exemptions from one child policy is only granted to smaller minorities and not big ethnic minorities, leading members of bigger ethnic minorities like Hui Nuslims, who are not exempt from it, to impersonate other Muslim ethnic minorities like Dongxiang in order to have multiple children.<ref>Dan Xu and Shaoqing Wen

Formation of a “Mixed Language” in Northwest China-The Case of Tangwang

In Dan Xu and Hui Li (eds.) 2017. Languages and Genes in Northwestern China and Adjacent

Regions. pp87-105. Singapore: Springer Nature, page 3 </ref>

Muslims migrated into Korea when Korea was under the Mongol empire and were able to dress in their own clothes and practice their religion until King Sejong issued a decree in 1427. Hee-Soo Lee explains that Muslims were assimilated into Korea after the 1427 decree that banned Muslim's distinctive clothes and religion.<ref>Hee-Soo Lee, The Advent of Islam in Korea: A Historical Account (Istanbul: Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture, 1997), 101–110.</ref> It was explained by King Sejong in his 1427 decree that banning Muslim dress would encourage Muslims to intermary with Koreans.<ref>Hemmat, Kaveh L. "Korea and the Ming Tribute System in Khatayi's Book of China." Acta Koreana, vol. 21 no. 1, 2018, p. 81-111. p. 84 Project MUSE https://muse.jhu.edu/article/756452.</ref><ref>https://www.academia.edu/36777835/Korea_and_the_Ming_Tribute_System_in_Khatayis_Book_of_China</ref>

Mongol control in Korea resulted in environmental destruction of forests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Molnar |first=Aaron |date=2023 |title=Felled Forests and Fallowed Fields: Establishing a Narrative of Ecological and Climate Change in Mongol-Era Goryeo |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Felled-Forests-and-Fallowed-Fields:-Establishing-a-Molnar/017329b9ad19eb8ffe4b6b102d51149fa23fd31c |journal=Seoul Journal of Korean Studies |volume= 36 |issue= 1|pages= 207-249|doi=10.1353/seo.2023.a902140}}</ref>

Early Joseon Korea received many foreigners at the end of the Yuan dynasty, including Uyghurs of Gaochang origin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bohnet |first= Adam |date=2020 |title= Turning toward Edification: Foreigners in Chosŏn Korea|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv17bt3jv.7 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv17bt3jv.7|publisher= University of Hawai’i Press|page= 24–53|isbn=0824884507|chapter=Foreign Communities in Early Chosŏn}}</ref>

Many Ming Chinese soldier who deserted as well as Japanese soldiers who defected permanently remained behind in Korea after the war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bohnet |first= Adam |date=2020 |title= Turning toward Edification: Foreigners in Chosŏn Korea|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv17bt3jv.8 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv17bt3jv.8 |publisher= University of Hawai’i Press|page= 54–73|isbn=0824884507|chapter=Civilizing Barbarians and Rebellious Allies: Japanese Defectors and Ming Deserters during the Imjin War}}</ref>

Gang rape on Korean women was frequently practiced by Japanese soldiers, in one case 10 Japanese soldiers killed a Korean man and his father and then gang raped his wife in a barley field.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first= James B. |date=2014 |title= The East Asian War, 1592-1598: International Relations, Violence and Memory|url=https://dokumen.pub/the-east-asian-war-1592-1598-international-relations-violence-and-memory-1138786632-9781138786639.html |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=358 |isbn=1317662733}}</ref>

Many soldiers on all sides suffered from diseases.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duan |first1= Baihui |date= 2024|title= Climate, diseases and medicine: the welfare of soldiers during the East Asian War of 1592-1598|url= https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Climate,-diseases-and-medicine:-the-welfare-of-the-Duan/561d38e9e515551c6f606c0c26b6e519df457424|journal=Medical History |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1017/mdh.2024.8}}</ref> Two thirds of Korean farmland were destroyed in the Imjin war in addition to over a million dead in Korea.{{cite journal |last= Park|first= J. P. |date=2015 |title=The Anxiety of Influence: (Mis)Reading Chinese Art in Late Chosŏn Korea (1700-1850) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43947742 |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume= 97|issue= 3|pages= 301–22}}

The Japanese invasion of Korea caused both heavy losses to human life and the environment including forests as trees were cut down for military use.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lee |first=John S. |date=2018 |title=Postwar Pines: The Military and the Expansion of State Forests in Post-Imjin Korea, 1598–1684 |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Postwar-Pines:-The-Military-and-the-Expansion-of-in-Lee/942e749c9c1111a71cbdeecd12d9c54a7263a55e |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=77 |issue= 2|pages=319–332 |doi=10.1017/S0021911817001322}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Duan|first1= Baihui |last2=Clements |first2=Rebekah |date= 2022|title=Fighting for Forests : Protection andExploitation of K˘oje Island Timber during the East Asian War of 1592-1598 |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Fighting-for-Forests:-Protection-and-Exploitation-Duan-Clements/86a9296632f2adcddd2a2fe457c85d8dcdad249e |journal=Environmental History |volume= 27 |issue= 3|pages= |doi=10.1086/719781 }}</ref>

Japanese soldiers kidnapped Korean women during the Imjin war for rape, taking only good looking ones back to Japan and selling them into slavery abroad. Oh Hui-mun mentioned each Japanese unit detaining hundreds of Korean women in his book Swaemirok (Diary of a Refugee). The Korean government refused to allow Korean men to divorce Korean women who were raped by Japanese during the Imjin war and Qing Manchu soldiers during their invasion of Korea, saying that there was no dishonour for raped Korean women who returned from Japanese and Manchu captivity.<ref>{{cite book |last= Yi|first=Pae-yong |editor-last=Chan|editor-first=Ted| date= 2008|title=Women in Korean History 한국 역사 속의 여성들 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3yW5MdzKnUC&pg=PA114&lpg=PA114&dq=Diary+of+a+refugee+Swaemirok+Oh+Hui-mun+100+women+Japanese+camp+Korean&source=bl&ots=w88p3kSroq&sig=ACfU3U2qmJT8j24s2grnFHLexUHL_tjZkQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjEtqfI26yFAxUTgf0HHfHIBi0Q6AF6BAgIEAM |publisher=Ewha Womans University Press |page=114 |edition=illustrated|isbn=8973007726}}</ref>

Joseon society had to deal with the fallout on their society by the Korean women rape victims who came back from Qing captivity.<ref>Pak Chu, “Pyŏngja horan kwa yihon,” Chosŏnsa yŏn’gu 10 (2001):273-278.</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last= Bohnet|first= Adam Clarence Immanuel |date=2008 |title= Migrant and Border Subjects in Late Chosŏn Korea|url= https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/thesescanada/vol2/002/NR57965.PDF?oclc_number=755208432 |degree= Doctor of Philosophy |publisher=University of Toronto |page=2}}</ref>

Mao Wenlong's Ming Chinese troops on their "Chinese ships" (唐船) would kidnap and plunder "uncountable" numbers of Korean women along with goods in P'yongan province, which was recorded by the Korean Sin Talto in 1627.<ref>Mano sŏnsaeng munjip 5:11b, National Library # ko: 3648-40, 3:24;</ref><ref>Tagawa, Mō Bunryū to Chōsen to no kankei ni tsuite</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last= Bohnet|first= Adam Clarence Immanuel |date=2008 |title= Migrant and Border Subjects in Late Chosŏn Korea|url= https://central.bac-lac.gc.ca/.item?id=TC-OTU-16743&op=pdf&app=Library&oclc_number=1033213837 |degree= Doctor of Philosophy |publisher=University of Toronto |page=100}}</ref>

During the Imjin war in 1594, the Korean court said the kidnapping of Korean women by Chinese troops didn't matter but they were concerned about potential loss of Korean men who they needed to serve as soldiers during the war.<ref>Sŏnjo Sillok 54:31a, Sŏnjo 27 (1594), 08, 25 (kyŏng’o), CSW 22:335: “昨總兵回咨, 我國人勿爲率去事, 似無快諾之意, 女人則已, 當此兵伐之日, 男丁一人, 豈非可惜, 今宜唐人率去男丁, 自爲出來者, 公私賤則爲良, 良人則除禁軍.”</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last= Bohnet|first= Adam Clarence Immanuel |date=2008 |title= Migrant and Border Subjects in Late Chosŏn Korea|url= https://www.academia.edu/80646293/Migrant_and_Border_Subjects_in_Late_Choson_Korea?f_ri=27165 |degree= Doctor of Philosophy |publisher=University of Toronto |page=115}}</ref>

Many Ming Chinese soldiers naturalised as Joseon subjects by having sexual relations with or marrying Korean women during the Imjin war. The Joseon court was ordered to guard the Korean female lover of Ming Chinese general Liu Ting 1594 when he returned to China.<ref>Sŏnjo Sillok 55:17a, Sŏnjo 27 (1594).09.13 (muja), CSW 22:346: “且臣意, 總兵必不久復來. 總兵眷戀倡女, 臨行贈物甚多, 行到迎曙, 貽書於都監郞廳金寭曰: ‘爲我, 護恤我所愛之人. 我無上司撤回之令, 而入歸, 必不久當還’ 云爾.” 上曰: “其女人在京乎? 此亦人情所不免. 天朝將官, 出來異域, 爲我國防守, 其功不貲. 且聞其女人有娠云, 厚待可也. 人情、天理, 不得不如是也.”</ref> During the Imjin war, Korean women were taken as lovers by Ming Chinese soldiers. A Korean, Yi Sugwang commented on this, saying that by the time the war ended there would be many fatherless children in Korea born of Korean women and Ming Chinese soldiers saying that “children know their mothers but do not know their own fathers” and “sons would grow old and not know their father’s face, while the children of women who were dirtied by Ming soldiers would give birth to children and not know the father’s surname.”<ref>Yŏllyŏsil kisul 17 kwŏn. “sŏnjojo kosa ponmal” “Nanjung sisa ch’ongnok,” Korean translation 4:338:“變初人有以焦氏易林卜得訟卦一說明朝推數者爲福我國曰: 文巧俗弊, 將反大質僵尸如麻,血流漂杵. 人知其母不知其父, 然後干伐乃止. 時男丁死亡殆盡, 有男長而不識父面者,或女子爲明兵所汚, 生子而不知不姓者.”</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last= Bohnet|first= Adam Clarence Immanuel |date=2008 |title= Migrant and Border Subjects in Late Chosŏn Korea|url= https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/thesescanada/vol2/002/NR57965.PDF?oclc_number=755208432 |degree= Doctor of Philosophy |publisher=University of Toronto |page=127}}</ref> At first the Joseon court was not concerned about losing women but then in 1593 it began ordering Ming Chinese soldiers to not take their Korean wives with them back to China, keeping the women in Korea.<ref>{{cite thesis |last= Bohnet|first= Adam Clarence Immanuel |date=2008 |title= Migrant and Border Subjects in Late Chosŏn Korea|url= https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/thesescanada/vol2/002/NR57965.PDF?oclc_number=755208432 |degree= Doctor of Philosophy |publisher=University of Toronto |page= 128}}</ref><ref>Sŏnjo Sillok 41:13a-b, 1593.08.06 (chŏnghae), CSW 22:62. </ref> As a result, many Ming Chinese soldiers stayed in Korea after the war and naturalised as Joseon subjects to be with their families. In Kŏje Island, a Korean woman from the T’ongjin Kŭm family became pregnant with he child of the Ming general Li Rusong.<ref>Hwangjoin sajŏk. fr. 59.</ref> It was mentioned that “many Chinese came and settled in Korea. The first were those soldiers of the Imperial Army who came during the punishment of the Japanese during the Imjin and Chŏngyu years of the Wanli emperor and who settled in Korea. Some were those who had children and could not return with them.” by Ma Fengzhi in the 17th century<ref>{{cite thesis |last= Bohnet|first= Adam Clarence Immanuel |date=2008 |title= Migrant and Border Subjects in Late Chosŏn Korea|url= https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/thesescanada/vol2/002/NR57965.PDF?oclc_number=755208432 |degree= Doctor of Philosophy |publisher=University of Toronto |page=129}}</ref><ref>O Kyŏngwŏn, “P’iji tongnae chein” in ”Hwangjo yumin rok,” Sohwa oesa 2:203: “中國之人, 來居東土者, 甚多, 初卽萬曆壬辰丁酉間定倭時, 天朝諸將多取于東邦, 或有子有女不能率歸, 仍爲東土人多矣. 萬經理世德之孫居于平壤, 千中軍志中之孫居于淸州, 彭參將友德之孫, 居于東萊, 彭遊擊信古之孫居于醴泉.”</ref>

Koreans taken prisoner by Japanese were sold as slaves to Portuguese and sent to Macau.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tang |first=Kaijian |date=2015 |title= Setting Off from Macau: Essays on Jesuit History during the Ming and Qing Dynasties|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3HsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=BRILL |page=93 |isbn=9004305521}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Leupp|first= Gary P. |date= 2003|title=Interracial Intimacy in Japan: Western Men and Japanese Women, 1543-1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-I6owJcCOdwC&pg=PA49&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher= A&C Black|page=49 |edition=illustrated|isbn=0826460747}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Yi|first= Pae-yong||editor-last=Chan|editor-first=Ted|date=2008 |title=Women in Korean History 한국 역사 속의 여성들 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=p3yW5MdzKnUC&pg=PA114#v=onepage&q&f=false|location= |publisher=Ewha Womans University Press |page=114 |edition=illustrated|isbn=8973007726}}</ref>

There were only 2,000 Chinese prostitutes out of a population of only 6,000 Chinese women in total, compared to 60,000 Chinese men who vastly outnumbered Chinese women, in 1884. Japanese prostitutes on Malabar and Malay streets were favoured by Europeans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Foo |first1= Adeline |date=21 JAN 2021 |title= When Women Were Commodities|url=https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-15/issue-4/jan-mar-2020/women-w-commodities/ |journal= biblioasia |volume=15 |issue=4}}</ref>

Upper class Indonesian women held a sex party with foreign men to have mixed race children.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://indonesiaexpat.id/news/sex-party-to-create-mixed-babies-in-indonesia/|title=Sex Party to Create Mixed Babies in Indonesia |last= |first= |date=September 16, 2020 |website= Indonesia Expat }}</ref>

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fulong_Road,_Qingdao https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Buildings_of_Qingdao_during_ROC_era https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Qingdao_Heritage_Architecture

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5 sep. 2018 — Former Residence of Cong Liangbi in Qingdao‎ (2 F). Media in category "Fulong Road, Qingdao". This category contains only the following file ...

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31 jan. 2019 — F · Former Municipal Exchange Building of Qingdao‎ (6 F) · Former Residence of Cong Liangbi in Qingdao‎ (2 F) ...

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31 jan. 2019 — Former Residence of Cong Liangbi in Qingdao‎ (2 F). Former Residence of German Imperial Judge G.Crusen Tsingtau‎ (3 F).

[[File:青岛从良弼住宅旧址.jpg|thumb|right|Former Residence of Cong Liangbi in Qingdao]]

[[File:青岛市药品检验所.jpg|thumb|left|Former Residence of Cong Liangbi in Qingdao]]

The Chinese businessman Cong Liangbi from Shandong ran a match factory during the republican era in China and when he was in Japan he fathered sons with a Japanese women he was in a temporary marriage with, returning to China to his original Chinese wives whent he contract expired.<ref>{{cite book |last= Shi|first=Xia |author-link= |date=2018 |title=At Home in the World: Women and Charity in Late Qing and Early Republican China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UpBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT169&lpg=PT169&dq=%22cong+liangbi%22&source=bl&ots=NyTQN2RmAt&sig=ACfU3U1AnPvtXxQIs3Cq5U1OiUkTfglf0Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiBstL504_5AhWCg1wKHS1KB8MQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location=New York Chichester, West Sussex |publisher= Columbia University Press|doi=https://doi.org/10.7312/shi-18560-008|pages=181-201 |isbn=|chapter=6. Women, Superstition, and the Reorientation Toward Charity|quote=door X Shi · 2018 — The family head was Cong Liangbi (1868–1945, known within the. Daoyuan by his religious name, Tingmeng), who was not only a lead-.

“Jujue chongdang weishizhang—yi zufu Cong Liangbi” (Refusing to be puppet mayor—remembering my grandfather Cong Liangbi). In Penglai wenshi ziliao (Cultural ...}}</ref><ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=3UpBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT169&dq=%22cong+liangbi%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiOxvCi95D5AhWDYMAKHbKWDDAQ6AF6BAgHEAI</ref> The family head was Cong Liangbi (1868– 1945, known within the Daoyuan by his religious name, Tingmeng), who was not only a leading merchant—as a major founder of the match industry of Shandong in the 1920s—but also president of the ...<ref>https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7312/shi-18560-008/pdf https://ur.u1lib.org/book/3489891/0eaace https://ar.b-ok.lat/book/3489891/0eaace?switchLanguage=ar</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cochran |first=Sherman |series=Critical perspectives on business and management|edition=illustrated |editor-last= Brown |editor-first=Rajeswary Ampalavanar |author-link= |date=1996 |title= Chinese Business Enterprise, Volume 3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b8LkMlsB4dYC&pg=PA217&lpg=PA217&dq=%22cong+liangbi%22&source=bl&ots=Sepakja_aw&sig=ACfU3U0EZegulCicw-sZZ6CCOSkqqo1GRg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiBstL504_5AhWCg1wKHS1KB8MQ6AF6BAgfEAM |location= |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=217 |isbn=0415132401|chapter=6 Three Roads into Shanghai's market : Japanese, Western, and Chinese companies in the match trade, 1895-1937* *Source: Frederick Wakeman and Wen-hsin Yeh (eds) Shanghai Sojourners (Berkeley, Cal., University of California Press, 1992) pp. 35-75|quote=... Zhicheng Xiang Zhengang Xiang Zhengang Cong Liangbi Cong Liangbi Cong Liangbi Suzhou Jiujiang Shanghai Shanghai Zhenjiang Hangzhou Tianjin Beijing Jinan ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://gutx.com.tr/story/ldpvBgiclgnf.html |title= Qingdao, uzun zamandır görüşme yok - Yolculuk|last= |first= |date= |website= Yolculuk|publisher= |access-date= |quote=Buna ek olarak, Cong Liangbi, 1922'de Dünya Kırmızı Swastika Topluluğu'nun Qingdao Şubesini kurdu ve 1930'larda Yushan Yolu'ndaki yeni Kızıl Swastika ...}}</ref><ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=b8LkMlsB4dYC&pg=PA217&dq=%22cong+liangbi%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiOxvCi95D5AhWDYMAKHbKWDDAQ6AF6BAgGEAI ... Hongsheng Liu Hongsheng Shao Erkang Shao Erkang Shao Erkang Zhao Zhicheng Xiang Zhengang Xiang Zhengang Cong Liangbi Cong Liangbi Cong Liangbi Suzhou Jiujiang Shanghai Shanghai Zhenjiang Hangzhou Tianjin Beijing Jinan Jining Qingdao ...</ref><ref>https://slcrb.by/9de4e1/Penis-Enlargement-Before-And-After-Phots/ Penis Enlargement Before And After Phots Slcrbhttps://slcrb.by › Penis-Enlargement...·

... in charge of the lottery center of the zhongdi jiaodong road constituency cong liangbi has not dared to close his eyes in the past 23 hours mr cong.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Jiang 蔣|first1=Hai-bo 海波 |last2= |first2= |date= 2008|title= 日本華僑と近代中国の新興産業 - 華東地域のマッチ産業を例として - Overseas Chinese in Japan and the New Industry in Modern China - A Case Study of the Match Industry in the East China -|url= https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001342088|journal= 아시아문화연구|volume= 15|issue= |pages= 185-203 (19 pages)|publisher=가천대학교 아시아문화연구소|doi= 10.34252/acsri.2008.15..007|access-date=|quote=... Dong Shuntai (東順泰), a trading company which had been originated in Yantai of Shandong province and was managed by Cong Liangbi（叢良弼) in Japan, ...}}</ref><ref>https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE01164927</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= KUBO |first1=Toru |last2= |first2= |date=2006 |title=The Shandong Economy in Relation to Germany and Japan -1910s-1930s- |url=https://toyo-bunko.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_uri&item_id=3173&file_id=22&file_no=1&nc_session=prfsi7tflqpo03g0asruvd47v2 |journal=The Memoirs of the Toyo Bunko |volume=64 |issue= |pages=77-100 |doi= |access-date=|quote=from Japan through Cong Liangbi 從良弼, an overseas Chinese who had lived in Japan.35) Shi Jingqing 鏡 , the factory manager of the Huaxin.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= 蒋 |first1= 海波|last2= |first2= |date= |title=日本华侨与近代中国火柴业——以华中和华东地区为例的考察

|url= http://120.196.134.130:8081/Qikan/Search/Index?key=K%3D%E9%99%88%E6%BA%90%E6%9D%A5|journal= 《华侨华人历史研究》|volume= |issue=4 |pages= 45-54,共10页|doi= |access-date=|quote=1篇文章 — ... in Japan ethnic Chinese enterprises match industry Wu Jintang Chen Yuanlai Zhang Youshen Cong Liangbi: 分类号 D634.331.3 [政治法律—政治学].}}</ref><ref>http://120.196.134.130:8081/Qikan/Search/Index?key=K%3DOverseas%2BChinese%2Bin%2BJapan 9篇文章 — ... in japan ethnic chinese enterprises match industry Wu Jintang Chen Yuanlai Zhang Youshen Cong Liangbi: 分类号 D634.331.3 [政治法律—政治学].</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Wakeman |editor1-first=Frederic E. |editor2-last=Yeh |editor2-first=Wen-Hsin |others=Contributors University of California, Berkeley. Center for Chinese Studies, University of California, Berkeley. Institute of East Asian Studies |issue =40 of China research monographs|issn= 0069-3693|date=1992 |title= Shanghai Sojourners, Issue 40; Issue 1992|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uNhxAAAAMAAJ&q=%22cong+liangbi%22&dq=%22cong+liangbi%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiOxvCi95D5AhWDYMAKHbKWDDAQ6AF6BAgDEAI|location= |publisher=Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California |page= 60, 345 |isbn=1557290350|quote=... Hongsheng Liu Hongsheng Shao Erkang Shao Erkang Shao Erkang Zhao Zhicheng Xiang Zhengang Xiang Zhengang Cong Liangbi Cong Liangbi Cong Liangbi Suzhou Jiujiang Shanghai Shanghai Zhenjiang Hangzhou Tianjin Beijing Jinan Jining Qingdao ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Tōyō Bunko (Japan)|date= 2003|title=Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko: (the Oriental Library)., Issues 61-65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCo8AQAAIAAJ&q=%22cong+liangbi%22&dq=%22cong+liangbi%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiOxvCi95D5AhWDYMAKHbKWDDAQ6AF6BAgIEAI |publisher= Tôyô Bunko.|page= 95 |quote=being imported from Japan during the 1920s.34 ) Zhenye Co. , which dominated the match market in Jinan , imported most of its equipment and raw materials from Japan through Cong Liangbi vit k 5875 , an overseas Chinese who had lived in ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/VisitQingdao/status/1435778398450700299 |date=Sep 9, 2021 |website=Twitter |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>

The actress Cong Shan [[w:zh:叢珊|叢珊]] is a granddaughter of Cong Liangbi.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date= 2022-07-24 13:41 HKT|title=Jiang Jingwei and his era |url= https://inf.news/en/history/cc3ca335bca0abecf5c6443080d1bf76.html|work= iNews |location= |access-date=|quote=20 jan. 2022 — In 1924, Cong Liangbi and Penglai squire Chen Lidong each set up Yinde Primary School with half of the funds, with Cong Chaojie serving as ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date= 2022-07-24 13:41 HKT|title=In the history of Kunqu Opera, what kind of person is the real Cong Zhaohuan? |url=https://inf.news/en/culture/4059f93cf9d53efe6d1c5d4a85b02c47.html |work=iNews |location= |access-date=|quote=His grandfather was Cong Liangbi, a famous businessman from Qilu. The old gentleman had done business in Japan in his early years. After returning to China, ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date= 2022-07-24 13:46 HKT|title=Actor Cong Shan's mother has passed away at the age of 87. She was a famous Kunqu Opera artist |url=https://inf.news/en/culture/b26967592b7e3c709f64b53ff6832925.html |work= iNews |location= |access-date=|quote=During the Japanese rule of Qingdao, the ancestor Cong Liangbi founded some modern enterprises, the first match factory in Qingdao, with more than 1,000 ...}}</ref>

==Japanese views on paternity==

Japanese peasant commoners did not have the concept of a bastard child and did not care about virginity since they allowed their wives and women to have sex with other men freely.<ref>{{cite book |last= McLelland|first= Mark |date= 2005|title=Queer Japan from the Pacific War to the Internet Age |series=Asian Voices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UN7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=no+special+value+seems+to+have+been+attached+to+virginity&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibwLri-sz7AhUEQPEDHc3EBL0Q6AF6BAgJEAM |location= |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|page= 35|isbn=1461641608}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Leupp |first=Gary P. |date=2003 |title= Interracial Intimacy in Japan: Western Men and Japanese Women, 1543-1900|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-I6owJcCOdwC&pg=PA48&dq=no+special+value+seems+to+have+been+attached+to+virginity&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibwLri-sz7AhUEQPEDHc3EBL0Q6AF6BAgIEAM |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher= A&C Black|page=48 |isbn=0826460747}}</ref>

==Vietnam==

North Vietnamese Mandarins in Tonkin offered their daughters to European ship captains when they visited.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=Project Muse |date=1997 |title=Journal of Women's History, Volume 9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3YpAAAAYAAJ&q=tonkin+mandarins+foreigners+marry+daughters&dq=tonkin+mandarins+foreigners+marry+daughters&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiD_tCnto75AhWNg1wKHUbYCbUQ6AF6BAgCEAI |location= |publisher=Indiana University Press|page=13 |isbn=|quote=... a woman as the wife of a foreigner , be it a few days or months or even years , temporary marriages helped create the ... and Captains of Ships have the great men's Daughters offered them , the Mandarins or Noblemen at Tunquin .}}</ref>

Khmer Krom fought against the Viet Minh.<ref> {{cite book |last= Olson|first=James S. |last2=Roberts |first2=Randy W. |author-link= |date= 2013|edition=6|title= Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam 1945 - 2010|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WQsFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT56&dq=tonkin+mandarins+foreigners+marry+daughters&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiD_tCnto75AhWNg1wKHUbYCbUQ6AF6BAgGEAI|location= |publisher= John Wiley & Sons|page= |isbn=1118608623|quote=In the late1940s, Ho ChiMinhbrought thousands ofMontagnard toVietminh schoolsin Tonkin for training as teachers, nurses,and political agents. ... Ngo's firstwife died soon aftertheir marriage,but his second wife had nine children.}}</ref>

Kublai Khan started enforcing Genghis Khan' s prohibition of Islamic and Jewish halal and kosher slaughter and circumcision to either assert Mongol domination over Muslim Hui or to appease Han Chinese of former Southern Song. The Yuan in the 14th century started executing Muslim officials like Daula-Shah, chancellor of the right, Ubaid-ullah, chief administrator in 1328, enacting forced labour corvee on Muslims, seizing horses from Muslims, banning commerce in mosques, and closing down Muslim colleges in 1321 and stripping Muslim mullahs (dashiman or ta-shih-man) of tax exemptions and privileges in 1320. The Yuan ended the Qadi and Saykh al-Islam (Zhangjiao or Chang-chiao) in 1328 and earlier in 1312 the Qadi was already stripped of extra territorial privileges. The Mongols banned marrying the wives of their father's younger brothers in 1340 and banned paternal cousin marriage for Jews and Muslims in 1340, imposing Confucian rules on foreign Muslims. In Quanzhou (Chwanchow) in 1357-66 and in Shanxi (Shansi) in 1343 Muslims revolted against the Mongol Yuan. The Muslims welcomed the 1368 establishment of the Ming which ended Mongol rule.<ref>{{cite book |last= Blanc|first= Charles Le |last2= Blader|first2= Susan |author-link= |date=1987 |title=Chinese Ideas About Nature and Society: Studies in Honour of Derk Bodde |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2-k571kpOwC&pg=PA183&dq=mongol+7+generations+cousin+marriages&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisiqGnnIT5AhUGWsAKHQ6KDCA4ChDoAXoECAIQAg |location= |publisher= Hong Kong University Press|page=182, 183 |isbn=962209189X|quote=forbade 'incestuous' marriages:23 'As of 1340, Ta—shih-man [Muslim mullahs], Hui-hui [other Muslims], and Jews will be prohibited from marrying paternal cousins.' 'In c.1340, foreigners are prohibited from marrying their father's ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chen |first=Sanping |series=Encounters with Asia|author-link= |date=2012 |title= Multicultural China in the Early Middle Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ugbWH-5OjegC&pg=PA166&dq=mongol+7+generations+cousin+marriages&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj24LD_uIT5AhXHT8AKHSswAogQ6AF6BAgCEAI |location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |page=166 |isbn=0812206282|quote=... or first cousins, it is beyond any doubt that the Bai clan practiced cousin marriages for generations. ... During the Mongol Yuan dynasty, this was one of the harsh criticisms the Hàn Chinese literati leveled at the Huihui (Muslim) ...}}</ref>

The Liao dynasty extracted tribute from Tungusic peoples near Harbin like the Pulumaoduo, Wolu and Wure. They gave sable furs, horses, eagles, slaves and ship builders in the 11th century.<ref>{{cite book |others=Contributor State University of New York at Albany. Department of East Asian Studies |date=2013 |title=Journal of Sung-Yuan Studies, Issue 43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sv3E0W1dvqwC&q=unspecified+slaves&dq=unspecified+slaves&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&redir_esc=y |location= |publisher=Department of East Asian Studies, State University of New York at Albany |page=284 |isbn=}}</ref>

The Mongols brought the Chinese idea of paper currency to Iran in 1294 where the name of the currency, chaw, was taken from the Chinese word Chao.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |date= 1917|title= Millard's Review of the Far East, Volume 3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Dg-AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA256&lpg=RA1-PA256&dq=%22a+mann+of+bread+in+some+districts+was+sold+for+a+dinar%22&source=bl&ots=Y_G7JAsR0I&sig=ACfU3U2k4Knd1KgLB_wRM5TNNvQPwtAO4w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR24TJqNv6AhVlFFkFHfVMBN8Q6AF6BAgHEAM |location= |publisher= China Monthly Review|page=256|quote=Naturally , the paper money immediately became a depreciated medium of exchange ; and a mann of bread in some districts was sold for a dinar , and a horse ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |date=1918 |title=Millard's Review, Volumes 3-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfoVAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA256&lpg=PA256&dq=%22a+mann+of+bread+in+some+districts+was+sold+for+a+dinar%22&source=bl&ots=rNzbxST2IL&sig=ACfU3U1rAafYBwXSDxoZNINEm5TrwhQObw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR24TJqNv6AhVlFFkFHfVMBN8Q6AF6BAgIEAM |location= |publisher=Millard Publishing Company, |page=256 |quote=Naturally , the paper money immediately became a depreciated medium of exchange ; and a mann of bread in some districts was sold for a dinar , and a horse ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |date= 1917|title= Millard's Review of the Far East, Volume 3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OD9CAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA256&lpg=PA256&dq=%22a+mann+of+bread+in+some+districts+was+sold+for+a+dinar%22&source=bl&ots=4Mm985z85K&sig=ACfU3U0nT6Q3Fq8SjC9qg_UqeQJro0KOaA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR24TJqNv6AhVlFFkFHfVMBN8Q6AF6BAgFEAM |location= |publisher= Millard Publishing Company|page=256 |quote=Naturally , the paper money immediately became a depreciated medium of exchange ; and a mann of bread in some districts : was sold for a dinar , and a horse ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Spalding |first= William Frederick |date= 1920|title=Eastern Exchange, Currency and Finance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6o0AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA116&lpg=PA116&dq=%22a+mann+of+bread+in+some+districts+was+sold+for+a+dinar%22&source=bl&ots=pNEUAIoemq&sig=ACfU3U03Qovwa3ZUR0HBeP8lmVcQHWtPSw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR24TJqNv6AhVlFFkFHfVMBN8Q6AF6BAgGEAM |location= |edition=3|publisher=Sir I. Pitman & Sons|page= 226 |quote=Naturally the paper money immediately became a depreciated medium of exchange ; and a mann of bread in some districts was sold for a dinar , and a horse ...}}</ref><ref>https://archive.org/stream/easternexchangec00spal/easternexchangec00spal_djvu.txt</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |date= 1965|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-YbrAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA14&dq=%22was+oblong+in+shape+and,+in+addition+to+some+chinese+signs%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjaxuL__t36AhUdElkFHZ4XB98Q6AF6BAgBEAI |location= |publisher=Brill |page= 14|quote=The Cao, made of the bark of the mulberry- tree, was oblong in shape and, in addition to some Chinese signs, bore the shahdda. Underneath this was the name ...}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/volume-5/Volume%202/page/14/mode/2up Bibliography : K. Jahn, Das iranische Papier- geld, ArO, x (1938), 308-340; B. Spuler, Die Mongolen in Iran^, 1955, 88-89, 301-302, and the sources and publications listed in these two works. (K. Jahn)]</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/volume-5/Volume%202_djvu.txt "The CaOy made of the bark of the mulberry-tree, was oblong in shape and, in addition to some Chinese signs, bore the ^hdda. Underneath this was the name ..."]</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/EncyclopaediaDictionaryIslamMuslimWorldEtcGibbKramerScholars.13/02.EncycIslam.NewEdPrepNumLeadOrient.EdEdComCon.LewPelScha.etc.UndPatIUA.v2.C-G.4th.Leid.EJBrill.1965.1991._djvu.txt "The Cao, made of the bark of the mulberry- tree, was oblong in shape and, in addition to some Chinese signs, bore the shahdda. Underneath this was the name ..."]</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/yakabikaj/status/1579124886303576065</ref>

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia&action=edit&section=5

Khitan and Han Chinese administrators were sent to Bukhara and Samarqand to govern by the Mongols in the 1220s and this was witnessed by [[Qiu Chuji]] on his way to meet Genghis Khan in Afghanistan.<ref>BUELL, PAUL D. “SINO-KHITAN ADMINISTRATION IN MONGOL BUKHARA.” Journal of Asian History, vol. 13, no. 2, 1979, pp. 121–51. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41930343. Accessed 28 Jul. 2022.</ref> Chinese siege engineers were deployed in Iran and Iraq by the Ilkhanate.<ref>Raphael, Kate. “Mongol Siege Warfare on the Banks of the Euphrates and the Question of Gunpowder (1260-1312).” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 19, no. 3, 2009, pp. 355–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27756073. Accessed 28 Jul. 2022.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Li |first=Chi Ch'ang |author-link= |others=translated by E. Bretschneider|author=recorded by his disciple Li Chi Ch'ang|date=1888 |title=The Travels of Ch'ang Ch'un to the West, 1220-1223 recorded by his disciple Li Chi Ch'ang|url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html |location= |publisher= |page= |isbn=}}</ref>

The Khitan [[Yelü Chucai]] was sent by the Mongols to Central Asia<ref>{{cite web |url= https://contacthistory.com/?p=323|title=“Impressions of Early 13th century Central Asia as seen in the poetry of Yelü Chucai”: a guest lecture by Dr. Sally Church with Prof. Qiu Jiangning |last=Schivatcheva |first=Tina |date= 13/12/2017 |website=Joined-up History |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ye-lü |first= Ch'u ts'ai |author-link=|others=translated by E. Bretschneider |date=1888 |title=Account of a Journey to the West (Si Yu Lu), 1219-1224 |url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/si_yu_lu.html |location= |publisher= |page= |isbn=}}</ref>

Rashid al-din said that the Chinese millet grain known as tuki was brought by Han Chinese first to Marv in Turkmenistan and then to Iranian Azerbaijan in Khoy and Tabriz. Later Han Chinese were reported to be the most significant ethnicity generations later in Khoi around 1340 when Mustawfi wrote about them.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allsen |first=Thomas T. |author-link= |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised|date= 2004|title= Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia|series=Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0StLNcKQNUoC&pg=PA121&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgGEAI |location= |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page=121 |isbn=052160270X}}</ref>

Rashid al-din wrote it in 1310. And local Muslims in Almalik lived with Han Chinese and Han Chinese were employed as guards and millet, barley and wheat farmers around Beshbalik and worked in Samarkand as seen in 1259 by Liu Yu. Wheat and hemp were grown next to mud huts near the Kerulun river by Han Chinese farmers in 1247 near Karakorum as seen by Zhang Dehui. Han Chinese made up 70% of herders in Mongolia as seen by Xuting and Peng Daya. Siberia's Upper Yeniesei area, Samarkand and western Mongolia all had Han Chinese craftsmen as seen by Li Zhichang in 1221-1222. He visited Balkh, Samarkand, Tashkent when he went to Central Asia and Mongolia form Shandong.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ebrey |first=Patricia Buckley |editor1-last=Ebrey |editor1-first=Patricia Buckley|editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Paul Jakov |author-link= |date=2016 |edition=illustrated|title= State Power in China, 900-1325|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SpADAAAQBAJ&pg=PA324&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgHEAI |location= |publisher=University of Washington Press |page=324 |isbn=0295998482|chapter=9 State-Forced Relocations in China, 900-1300 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date= |title= |url= |location= |publisher= |page= |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= LAMBTON |first=A.K.S |editor-last= Morgan|editor-first= Reuven Amitai-Preiss |author-link= |date=2021 |title= The Mongol Empire and its Legacy|series=Islamic History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rJJOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA148&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgDEAI |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=148 |isbn=9004492739|chapter=THE ATHAR WA AHYA' OF RASHID AL-DIN FADL ALLAH HAMADANI AND HIS CONTRIBUTION AS AN AGRONOMIST, ARBORICULTURIST AND HORICULTURALIST }}</ref>

The Tabriz based Rob'-e Rashidi and the Maraghe observatory in Ilkhanid Iran had scientists and scholars of Chinese origin. The "Book of Precious Presents or the Medicine of the Chinese People" (Tansuq-name ya tebb-e ahl-e Kheta) was translated by people working under Rashid-al-Din Fazl-Allah to Persian from Chinese and it was about Chinese medicine.<ref>{{cite book |last= VESEL |first=ZIVA |last2= BRENTJES|first2=SONJA |editor-last= Utas |editor-first=Bo |author-link= |date= 2021|title= Persian Prose: A History of Persian Literature, Vol V|series=History of Persian Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7AwtEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA255&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgJEAI |location= |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=255 |isbn=0755617819|chapter=CHAPTER 4 SCIENCE IN PERSIAN ZIVA VESEL in collaboration with SONJA BRENTJES 1. Introduction}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Boyd |editor-first= Kelly |author-link= |date= 1999|title=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA1466&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgEEAI |location= |publisher= Taylor & Francis|page= 1466 |isbn=1884964338}}</ref>

Han Chinese were sent to the Upper Yenisei valley as weavers, into Samarkand and Outer Mongolia as craftsmen as noticed by Ch'ang-ch'un in 1221-22 when he travelled to Kabul from Beijing and they moved to Russia and Iran. The Euphrates and Tigris basins were irrigated by Chinese hydraulic engineers and in 1258 at the siege of Baghdad one of Hulagu Khan's generals was Han Chinese. Because of the Mongols, Chinese influenced architecture, music, ceramics and Persian miniatures in the Golden Horde and Il-khan. Han Chinese, Mongols, Uighurs, Venetians and Geonese all lived in Tabriz were paper money was introduced and movable type printing and wood engraving as well as paper money, printed fabrics and playing cards spread from china to Europe due to the Mongols. wood engraving which was Chinese was mentioned in the 1313 book "Treasure of the Il-khan on the Sciences of Cathay" which was about Chinese medicine and translated by Rashid al-Din.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernet |first=Jacques |editor=Cambridge University Press|others=Translated by J. R. Foster, Charles Hartman

|author-link= |date= 1996 |title= A History of Chinese Civilization|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jqb7L-pKCV8C&pg=PA377&lpg=PA377&dq=It+is+said+that+in+the+fourteenth+century+there+were+Chinese+quarters+in+Tabriz+and+even+Moscow+and+Novgorod&source=bl&ots=VVPA5POLws&sig=ACfU3U3LERh9b2Fwh4t3QybFLVViIeqIxw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjVktLI3tz1AhUrSPEDHYqhDUEQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=It%20is%20said%20that%20in%20the%20fourteenth%20century%20there%20were%20Chinese%20quarters%20in%20Tabriz%20and%20even%20Moscow%20and%20Novgorod&f=false|edition=illustrated, reprint, revised|location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=377 |isbn=0521497817}}</ref>

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guo_Kan&action=edit&section=1

Guo Baoyu campaigned with [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|Genghis in Central Asia against the Khwarezmian empire]] and his grandson Guo Kan campaigned under Hulagu at [[Mongol campaign against the Nizaris|the Nizari fortresess]] of [[Siege of Maymun-Diz|Maymundiz]] and Alamut as well as at [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Baghdad in 1258]] in Iraq. They were direct descendants of [[Guo Ziyi]].<ref>{{cite book |last=宋first=濂| |author-link= |date= |title=元史|chapter=卷149#郭寶玉〈〔德海_侃〕〉[8]|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%85%83%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7149#%E9%83%AD%E5%AF%B6%E7%8E%89%E3%80%88%E3%80%94%E5%BE%B7%E6%B5%B7_%E4%BE%83%E3%80%95%E3%80%89[8] |location= |publisher= |page= |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=宋first=濂| |author-link=|others=柯劭忞 |date=1920|title=元新元史|chapter=卷146 (卷一百四十六列傳第四十三 )|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%85%83%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7146 |location= |publisher= |page= |isbn=}}</ref>

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war&action=edit&section=3

During the war between Kublai Khan and Kaidu the Uyghurs of Qocho fled Qaidu's assaults into Gansu under Yuan control from Turfan, in 1283 placing Yongchang as their capital and between 1270-1275 making Gansu's city of Qamil their capital. Uyghur subjects fled along with the royal court. <ref>{{cite book |last=Allen |first= Thomas T. |editor1-last=Amitai|editor1-first= Reuven|editor1-last=Biran|editor1-first= Michal |author-link= |date= 2014|edition=illustrated|title=Nomads as Agents of Cultural Change: The Mongols and Their Eurasian Predecessors |series=Perspectives on the Global Past|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7VgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgFEAI|location= |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |page=129 |isbn=082484789X|chapter=Six : Population Movements in Mongol Eurasia }}</ref> The Mongols sent new people to repopulate the Jaxartes river (lower Syr Darya) based city of Yangikent (Iamkint or Sakint) after deporting and killing the natives. The upper Yenisei region of Qianqianzhou received many Han Chinese artisans and the western Mongolia based military base and granary city of Chinqai received many Han Chinese artisans put there by Mongols as heardd in 1221-1222 by Li Zhichang who was going to Central Asia. Kublai khan sent southern Han Chinese farmers from the Southern Song repeatedly to the Siberian Kyrgyz region of Yenisei in 1272 and before that year as well. He also sent them farming equipment and oxen. Tanguts, Khitans and Han Chinese were sent to take care of gardens and fields in the depopulated and sacked city of Samarkand where only 25% of the original 100,000 households survived the Mongol sacking and Han Chinese artisans were "everywhere" in the ruined city as witnessed on 3 December, 1221. They managed to rehabilitate and reconstruct the city since Samarqand was praised as a productive flourishing area before at least 1225 when the Khitan Yelu Chucai came there. Mongke send Chang De to Hulagu in 1259. He went across Central Asia. He said "numerous Chinese growing wheat, barley, millet and [other] grains" lived around Lake Qizilbash and the Ulungur river in north Dzungaria and the cities of Almaliq and Tiermuer Chancha had many Han Chinese from Shaanxi in the Ili river valley. He said "the Muslim populace [there] has become mixed with the Chinese and over time their customs have gradually come to resemble those of the Middle Kingdom." <ref>{{cite book |last=Allen |first= Thomas T. |editor1-last=Amitai|editor1-first= Reuven|editor1-last=Biran|editor1-first= Michal |author-link= |date= 2014|edition=illustrated|title=Nomads as Agents of Cultural Change: The Mongols and Their Eurasian Predecessors |series=Perspectives on the Global Past|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7VgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA130&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgFEAI|location= |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |page=130 |isbn=082484789X|chapter=Six : Population Movements in Mongol Eurasia }}</ref> During Mongke's rule in the 1250s in Iran in the 13th century, Iran received thousands of Han Chinese farmers. Han Chinese were the plurality in the Iranian Azerbaijan city of Khoy as of 1340 as testified by Mustawfi. Han Chinese in Khoy and Tabriz in Iranian Azerbaijan were originally sent to Marv by the Mongols before being sent to the Iranian Azerbaijani cities as recorded by Rashid al-Din. <ref>{{cite book |last=Allen |first= Thomas T. |editor1-last=Amitai|editor1-first= Reuven|editor1-last=Biran|editor1-first= Michal |author-link= |date= 2014|edition=illustrated|title=Nomads as Agents of Cultural Change: The Mongols and Their Eurasian Predecessors |series=Perspectives on the Global Past|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7VgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA131&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgFEAI|location= |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |page=131 |isbn=082484789X|chapter=Six : Population Movements in Mongol Eurasia }}</ref>

The war between Qaidu and Kublai wrecked the economy of Uighuria (Qocho) and stopped trade between China and West Asia and Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last= Biran|first= Michal |author-link= |date=2013 |title= Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State In Central Asia|series=Central Asia Research Forum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AU3jAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgCEAI |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=57 |isbn=1136800379}}</ref>

Oljeitu's birth was witnessed by Rashid al-Din.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kamola |first=Stefan|editor-last=Babaie |editor-first=Sussan |author-link= |date=2019 |title= Iran After the Mongols|series=The Idea of Iran|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LhGpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgLEAI |location= |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page= 66|isbn=1786736012|chapter=3 Beyond History: Rashid Al-Din and Iranian Kingship }}</ref>

The Sunni convert Jew Rashid al-Din was executed after the Ilkhanate became Shia.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gettleman |editor1-first= Marvin E. |editor2-last=Schaar |editor2-first=Stuart |author-link= |date=2012 |title=The Middle East and Islamic World Reader |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hw1D9Ab8l-8C&pg=PT57&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgKEAI |location= |publisher=Open Road + Grove/Atlantic |page= ||edition=revised|isbn=0802194524}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date=1979 |title=National Union Catalog: A Cumulative Author List Representing Library of Congress Printed Cards and Titles Reported by Other American Libraries |others=Contributor Library of Congress. Processing Department

|series=Library of Congress catalogs|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4h3hAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA539&dq=rashid+al+din+marv+chinese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMm4Svytz1AhUTG-wKHVYOCgoQ6AF6BAgIEAI|location= |publisher= Library of Congress|page= |isbn=}}</ref>

https://af.booksc.eu/book/32956930/92eff6 https://ge.booksc.org/book/32956930/92eff6 https://ur.booksc.org/book/32956930/92eff6 https://zh.booksc.org/book/32956930/92eff6 https://bd.art1lib.org/book/32956930/92eff6 https://pdf.zlibcdn.com/dtoken/14cfc09993c53c5b012198fe4baf105c/jss/6.2.145.pdf

https://dokumen.pub/empires-twilight-northeast-asia-under-the-mongols-1nbsped-0674036085-9780674036086.html https://vdoc.pub/documents/empires-twilight-northeast-asia-under-the-mongols-2i7l4ccfsq10

<ref>{{cite book |last= Chaffee |first=John W. |author-link= |date=2018 |title=The Muslim Merchants of Premodern China: The History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750–1400 |series=New Approaches to Asian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfBmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134&lpg=PA134&dq=%22The+first+is+Sayyid+Bin+Abu+Ali+(1251%E2%80%931299),+a+thirteenth-century+Arab+recently+studied+by+Liu%22&source=bl&ots=o2yiMhlkUB&sig=ACfU3U2n1Hn147Ijc2U5pxydLKsuq36dZg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiM1NKhxNj1AhV3QfEDHQj2CR0Q6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |chapter=4 - The Mongols and Merchant Power|publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=134 |isbn=1108640095}}</ref> https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/muslim-merchants-of-premodern-china/mongols-and-merchant-power/98C2AD9F5D705E5DFC16414131CAFD66 https://vdoc.pub/documents/the-muslim-merchants-of-premodern-china-the-history-of-a-maritime-asian-trade-diaspora-7501400-5ino018tkib0 https://ur.booksc.eu/book/73001891/b7e19b https://az.booksc.me/book/73001891/b7e19b https://af.booksc.org/book/73001891/b7e19b

https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/did-you-know-sayyid-bin-abu-ali-true-representative-intercultural-relations-along-maritime https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/knowledge-bank/inscription-memory-sayyid-bin-abu-ali

Two of [[Emperor Zhangzong of Jin]]'s former concubines were seen by [[Qiu Chuji]] in a settlement of Chinese people when he was going on his journey through Mongolia and Central Asia. https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html

https://kingsandgenerals.libsyn.com/247-history-of-the-mongols-chagatai-khanate-i https://thejackmeister-mongolhistory.tumblr.com/post/181467210919/on-the-character-of-chagatai https://thejackmeister-mongolhistory.tumblr.com/post/181467210919/embed https://www.booksfact.com/religions/koke-mongke-tengri-blue-god-mongols.html https://www.tumblr.com/tagged/chagatai?sort=top https://digitalcommons.bard.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=senproj_f2017

One of the foreign Muslims buried in Quanzhou during the Yuan dynasty was an Arab of Omani origin who had married a Korean woman in Dadu (Beijing) and had children with her.<ref>{{cite book |last= Liu |first=Yingsheng|editor-last= Elisseeff|editor-first=Vadime |author-link= |date= 2000|title= The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVVoRKSZxagC&pg=PA122&lpg=PA122&dq=%22only+a+few+omanis+such+as+sinbad,+known+as%22&source=bl&ots=eej2SazuNu&sig=ACfU3U1s4chjt86mEKWRNet3jaUMUrYnQw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi_ndXgvdv1AhVrMewKHZYpB-QQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22only%20a%20few%20omanis%20such%20as%20sinbad%2C%20known%20as%22&f=false |archive-url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/an%20inscription%20in%20memory%20of%20sayyid%20bin%20abu%20ali.pdf|archive-date= |location= |edition=illustrated, reprint|publisher=Berghahn Books |page= 122-126|isbn=1571812210|chapter=Chapter 6 AN INSCRIPTION IN MEMORY OF SAYYID BIN ABU ALI : A Study of Relations between China and Oman from the Eleventh to the Fifteenth Century|series=Berghahn Series, UNESCO Integral study of the Silk Roads: roads of dialogue}}</ref>

The Cheonghai Yi clan was founded by Yi Jiran, whose original Jurchen name was Tung Duran and the Deoksu Jang clan was founded by Jang Sunryong, who was originally a Muslim called Samga. They were given new Korean surnames by the government of Goryeo since these Muslims, Mongols and Jurchens became subjects of the kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |last= Yi|first=I-hwa |last2=Lee |first2=E-Wha |author-link= |others=Translated by Ju-Hee Park|date=2006 |title= Korea's Pastimes and Customs: A Social History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcsMRc6pbQoC&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=deoksu+jang+clan&source=bl&ots=XiDCjyiYrh&sig=ACfU3U2fuL4hqmK5QUBOOCeh9NeKuhQ1Ng&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbs_bmutv1AhWH_6QKHU7mBZEQ6AF6BAgtEAM#v=onepage&q=deoksu%20jang%20clan&f=false |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher=Homa & Sekey Book |page= 123 |isbn=1931907382|quote=The Muslim Samga received the name Jang Sunryong and became the founder of the Deoksu Jang clan. Tung Duran, a Jurchen who received the name Yi Jiran, ...}}</ref> 12,000 people were counted as belonging to the Chenghai Yi and 21,000 were counted as belonging to the Deoksu Jang in the 2000 census of South Korea.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tudor |first=Daniel |author-link= |date= 2012|title=Korea: The Impossible Country: South Korea's Amazing Rise from the Ashes: The Inside Story of an Economic, Political and Cultural Phenomenon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BA_QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT392&lpg=PT392&dq=deoksu+jang+clan&source=bl&ots=3ujctg5UWc&sig=ACfU3U2MrMQSIUVbRDq_P5QtQSeMeyvDbQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbs_bmutv1AhWH_6QKHU7mBZEQ6AF6BAgsEAM#v=onepage&q=deoksu%20jang%20clan&f=false |location= |publisher= Tuttle Publishing|page=270 |isbn=146291022X|quote=... 20, 57, 113,261, 275 Rutt, Richard, 291 Saenuri Party (former Grand National Party), 153, 156, 158, 160, 161, 162 Samga (founder of Deoksu Jang clan), ...}}</ref>

Samga Deoksu Jang.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/1500-years-contact-between-korea-and-middle-east |title=1,500 Years of Contact between Korea and the Middle East |last=Lee |first=Hee Soo |date= June 7, 2014|website=mei.edu |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_China&action=edit&section=6

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Asia&action=edit&section=8

Korean woman had a long history of being sold or brought into China for concubinage and slavery first in the Tang dynasty and then in the Yuan dynasty under the Mongols, where the northern elite fetishized Korean women and the Mongol elite Semu of Hui, Indian, Uyghur and Turkicorigin married Korean women taken from Korea as tribute by the Mongols. Han Chinese men like Ye Ziqi and Hao Jing observed that Korean women's beauty was fetishized by the Semu Hui and Mongol men. Notable men and high statues men of the Yuan dynasty in Dadu (Khanbaliq, Beijing) had to have Korean women in order to show off their status.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wyatt |first=Don J. |editor-last=Allen|editor-first=Richard B. |author-link= |date=2021 |title=Slavery and Bonded Labor in Asia, 1250–1900 |series=Studies in Global Slavery|others=Richard B. Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2stKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA119&dq=korean+women+marrying+indian+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR4JDb-6_3AhUzAp0JHR0XBh4Q6AF6BAgEEAI |location= |publisher= BRILL |page=117-120 |isbn=9004469656|chapter=CHAPTER 4 : Slavery and the Mongol Empire }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=David M. |author-link= |date=2020 |title=Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia under the Mongols |series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fcFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA315&dq=korean+women+indian+turkic+robinson&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjYrpaelrH3AhVXZ80KHThQAkEQ6AF6BAgDEAI |location= |publisher=BRILL|page=52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 314, 315 |isbn=1684170524}}</ref>

The Yuan dynasty placed garrisons of Mongol nomad tribal soldiers and their families in areas around the Yuan dynasty, but forced them to frequently move between the different garrisons to stop them from having friendly relations with the locals and from losing their nomadic culture. Han Chinese tenants rented land from these garrisons from which they were supposed to get income to maintain themselves. However the frequent moving around and the cost of military equipment was greater than the rent the Mongol soldiers earned from Han tenants, so the Mongols began to enter debt bondage and slavery. Mongol girls and boys were sold as slaves to non-Mongol civilians (minjia) including northern Han Chinese and [[Semu]] [[Hui people|Huihui]] and this problem became so severe that in 1291 Kublai Khan had to issue orders against it and so did the Yuan emperors [[Shidebala]] and his father [[Ayurbarwada]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Wyatt |first=Don J. |editor-last=Allen|editor-first=Richard B. |author-link= |date=2021 |title=Slavery and Bonded Labor in Asia, 1250–1900 |series=Studies in Global Slavery|others=Richard B. Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2stKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 |location= |publisher= BRILL |page=120, 1221 |isbn=9004469656|chapter=CHAPTER 4 : Slavery and the Mongol Empire }}</ref> Mongols (Tatar) and Huihui in the Ming dynasty army mixed with each other examples including a Hui, An-ke ku-zhu being described as the son of a Nanjing brocade guard prison vice commander o f Mongol (Tatar) origin, and another Nanjing brocade guard pirson full chiliarch of Mongol origin having a 3 year old daughter labelled as a Huihui. The Ming employed both Mongols and Hui in it's military garrisons as hereditary military households.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=David M. |title=Images of Subject Mongols Under the Ming Dynasty |journal=Late Imperial China |date=June 2004 |volume=25 |issue=1 |page=95 |doi=10.1353/late.2004.0010 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/172205 |ref=Project MUSE |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |s2cid=144527758 |issn=1086-3257}}</ref>

In Jurchen Zhongdu mass suicide was committed by thousands of virgins jumping from heights. The [[Principality of Antioch]] was forced to pay 3,000 virgins to the Mongols as tribute. [[Özbeg Khan]] of the Golden Horde married Bayalun, a Byzantine Princess. [[Abaqa]] of the Ilkhanate married Maria Despina, a Byzantine princess.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szostak |first=Rick |author-link= |date=2020 |title=Making Sense of World History |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tDv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT895&dq=antioch+3000+virgins+mongols&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq4_yx_K_3AhUZCM0KHSilAFQQ6AF6BAgFEAI|location= |publisher=Routledge |page= |edition=illustrated|isbn=1000201678}}</ref> 3,000 virgins were demanded from Antioch by the Mongols. Mongol men in the Yuan dynasty and court took Korean women as concubines and wives and favoured taking them as tribute over other women.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first=|author-link= |date= |title= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRIt9sZaTREC&pg=PA221&dq=antioch+3000+virgins+mongols&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq4_yx_K_3AhUZCM0KHSilAFQQ6AF6BAgKEAI|location= |publisher= |page=221 |isbn=}}</ref> 3,000 virgins were demanded from Antioch by the Mongol Tartars according to [[Matthew Paris]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Baraz |first=Daniel |author-link= |date=2019 |title=Medieval Cruelty: Changing Perceptions, Late Antiquity to the Early Modern Period |series=Conjunctions of Religion and Power in the Medieval Past|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_6tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96&dq=antioch+3000+virgins+mongols&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq4_yx_K_3AhUZCM0KHSilAFQQ6AF6BAgEEAI |location= |publisher=Cornell University Press |page=96 |isbn=1501723928}}</ref> 3,000 virgins were demanded in 1260 from Antioch in Syria by the Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wyatt |first=Don J. |editor-last=Allen|editor-first=Richard B. |author-link= |date=2021 |title=Slavery and Bonded Labor in Asia, 1250–1900 |series=Studies in Global Slavery|others=Richard B. Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2stKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117&dq=antioch+3000+virgins+mongols&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq4_yx_K_3AhUZCM0KHSilAFQQ6AF6BAgJEAI |location= |publisher= BRILL |page=117 |isbn=9004469656|chapter=CHAPTER 4 : Slavery and the Mongol Empire }}</ref> But a little to the north of the line, previously followed by the Kharizmian migration, was advancing a more terrific danger. The Mongols, whom Gregory IX had represented as virtually protectors of Palestine, and likely soon to become Christians, were spreading desolation far westward. The Syro-Frank state first found on their way was Antioch; and, whilst devastating the territory, they required the Prince to redeem himself and subjects from utter annihilation, by razing the walls and fortifications of all his towns, and delivering up to them, not only all the gold and silver in his dominions, but also 3,000 virgins. This demand was just made at the moment of the assembling of the Council of Lyons, and,like the destruction of the Kharizmians, could not be yet known in Europe. Still, the condition of the Syro-Frank States, the prospects of Christianity itself, in the East, might, it should seem, have furnished the Head of the Church with more important subjects to lay before the embodied Church, than his own personal quarrels with his proper protector and champion, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Busk |first=M. M. |author-link= |date= 1836 |title=Mediæval Popes, Emperors, Kings, and Crusaders; or, Germany, Italy, and Palestine, from A.D. 1125 to A.D. 1268. [With maps.], Volume 4 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cOGD6XV5gmsC&pg=PA77&dq=antioch+3000+virgins+mongols&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq4_yx_K_3AhUZCM0KHSilAFQQ6AF6BAgDEAI|location= |publisher=Hookham&Sons |page=77, 78 |isbn=}}</ref>

Han Chinese Green Standard Army officer Shen Qiliang from Jiangsu published books on how to learn Manchu in 1682 and 1682.<ref> {{cite book |edition=illustrated|last=Saarela |first= Mårten Söderblom |series=Encounters with Asia Series|author-link= |date=2020 |title= The Early Modern Travels of Manchu: A Script and Its Study in East Asia and Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjffDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&source=bl&ots=EX9eMUFLAT&sig=ACfU3U0DLMT8kSf6G8IUBDU1tQBgDT6mug&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjIz8Ogi4b5AhXAEGIAHU3qCdwQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |page=64 |isbn=0812252071|quote=In addition, manuscript syllabaries in the style of Liao's Shier zitou are also extant.66 Shen Qiliang's Pedagogical Publications In 1686, Shen Qiliang ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |others=Contributor Benjamin A. Elman|edition=reprint|last= |first= |series=Sinica Leidensia|author-link= |date= 2014|title= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA183&lpg=PA183&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&source=bl&ots=zy810WYH85&sig=ACfU3U3lWD5JKND962NmlNupLO5jyLSHIA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjIz8Ogi4b5AhXAEGIAHU3qCdwQ6AF6BAgUEAM |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=183 |isbn=900427927X|quote=It was primarily in private and commercial publishing that Shen Qiliang's lexicographic arrangement would develop.34 By 1780, almost a century after the ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Saarela|first1= Mårten Söderblom |last2= |first2= |date=2014 |title=Shier zitou jizhu (Collected notes on the twelve heads): A Recently Discovered Work by Shen Qiliang |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/s/saksaha/13401746.0012.003/--shier-zitou-jizhu-collected-notes-on-the-twelve-heads?rgn=main;view=fulltext|journal= Saksaha: A Journal of Manchu Studies |volume= 12|issue= |publisher=Princeton University|pages= |doi= https://doi.org/10.3998/saksaha.13401746.0012.003|access-date=}}</ref><ref>https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx/shier-zitou-jizhu-collected-notes-on-the-twelve-heads.pdf?c=saksaha;idno=13401746.0012.003;format=pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://talesofmanchulife.wordpress.com/2019/01/22/shen-qiliangs-manchu-works/ |title=Shen Qiliang’s Manchu works |last= |first= |date= 22 January 2019|website=tales of manchu life |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Saarela |first= Mårten Söderblom |author-link= |date= 2020|title= The Early Modern Travels of Manchu|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812296938-004/pdf |location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |page= |isbn=doi=https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812296938-004|chapter=Chapter 2. The Beijing Origins of Manchu Language Pedagogy, 1668–1730}}</ref><ref>https://inasentence.net/Shen_Qiliang</ref><ref>{{cite book |edition=illustrated|last= Saarela|first= Mårten Söderblom |series=Encounters with Asia Series|author-link= |date=2020 |title=The Early Modern Travels of Manchu: A Script and Its Study in East Asia and Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjffDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgFEAI |location= |publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press|page=64 |isbn=0812252071|quote=In addition, manuscript syllabaries in the style of Liao's Shier zitou are also extant.66 Shen Qiliang's Pedagogical Publications In 1686, Shen Qiliang 沈啟亮(fl. 1645–93), of Loudong 婁東(Taicang 太倉 prefecture) in the lower Yangzi ...}}</ref><ref>https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812296938-004/pdf https://ebin.pub/download/the-early-modern-travels-of-manchu-a-script-and-its-study-in-east-asia-and-europe-9780812252071.html https://ebin.pub/the-early-modern-travels-of-manchu-a-script-and-its-study-in-east-asia-and-europe-9780812252071.html https://dokumen.pub/the-early-modern-travels-of-manchu-a-script-and-its-study-in-east-asia-and-europe-0812252071-9780812252071.html https://dokumen.pub/the-early-modern-travels-of-manchu-a-script-and-its-study-in-east-asia-and-europe-9780812252071.html</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |others=Contributor Benjamin A. Elman|series=Sinica Leidensia|author-link= |date= 2014|title=Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA183&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgCEAI |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=183 |isbn=900427927X|edition=reprint|quote=It was primarily in private and commercial publishing that Shen Qiliang's lexicographic arrangement would develop.34 By 1780, almost a century after the initial publication of Shen's dictionary, five major alphabetically arranged ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Adolphson|first= Mikael S. |editor-last= Hanan|editor-first= Patrick |issue= 1 of Harvard-Yenching Library studies|volume = 1 of Harvard-Yenching Library studies: Harvard Yenching Library|author-link= |date= 2003|title=Treasures of the Yenching: Seventy-fifth Anniversity of the Harvard-Yenching Library : Exhibition Catalogue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OksPvlsQOZEC&pg=PA94&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgIEAI |location= |publisher= Chinese University Press|page=94 |isbn=9629961024|quote=This translation of the famous Chinese - language primer was done by Shen Qiliang , the author of Da Qing quanshu 大清全書( The complete book of the Great Qing dynasty ) . Each page carries the Chinese text in classical and vernacular ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Brokaw |editor1-first=Cynthia J. |editor2-last= Chow |editor2-first=Kai-Wing |others=Contributors American Council of Learned Societies, ProQuest (Firm)|author-link= |series=ACLS Fellows' Publications ACLS Humanities E-Book|date=2005 |title= Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMckDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA531&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgJEAI |location= |publisher=University of California Press |page= 531|edition=illustrated|isbn=0520231260|quote=... and print vs. performance, 291 Shen Nanpin, 406–7 Shennong bencao jingdu, 223 Shen Qiliang, 314, 316 shenqing (spiritualized emotion), 281, 297 Shenshi beizhi shisanfang Shanghaizhi zupu (Xiaoyi Qimen), 348 Shenshi zhipu (Pudong), ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nappi |first=Carla |series=Global Asias|author-link= |date= 2021|title= Translating Early Modern China: Illegible Cities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ieMmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgEEAI |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |page= 123 |isbn=019263626X|quote=On the system of twelve " heads , ” see the detailed study of Shen Qiliang's work on the topic in Mårten Söderblom Saarela , “ Shier zitou jizhu ( Collected notes on the twelve heads ) : A Recently Discovered Work by Shen Qiliang ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schlesinger |first=Jonathan |author-link= |date= 2017|title= A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCKaDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgHEAI |location= |publisher= Stanford University Press|page=34 |isbn=1503600688|quote=Shen Qiliang (fl. 1645–1693) tackled the problem most directly in his Da Qing quanshu (1683), the first Manchu–Chinese dictionary.95 He compiled the dictionary for practical reasons; the ruling elite spoke and wrote in Manchu, ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Yong|first= Heming |last2=Peng |first2=Jing |author-link= |date=2008 |title=Chinese Lexicography: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYFBtTUZFxEC&pg=PA455&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgKEAI |location= |publisher=OUP Oxford |page= 455 |isbn=0191561673|quote=... 274 Quan Zhen 全真 373 Ruan Yuan 阮元 270, 312, 314, 315 Seng Xingjun 僧行均 198 Shang Yang 商鞅 64 Shao Jinhan 邵晋涵 74 Shen Chenglin 沈乘麐 362 Shen Kuo 沈括 208, 233, 234 Shen Qiliang 沈启亮 397 Shen Yue 沈约 239, 241, 242, ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |edition=illustrated|editor-last= Fuertes-Olivera|editor-first=Pedro A. |author-link= |series=Routledge Handbooks in Linguistics|date=2017 |title= The Routledge Handbook of Lexicography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LUk4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1392&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgLEAI |location= |publisher= Routledge|page= |isbn=135159964X|quote=... S. 643 Shabdkosh 587, 591–592 Shakhmatov, A. 620 Shen, D. 391 ShenKuo 528 Shen Qiliang 525 Shridhar Bhasha Kosh 587–588 Shrivastava, M. L. 589 ShuXincheng 529 sign language see Dictionary of New Zealand Sign Language (DNZSL) Sijens, ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Kim |first=Loretta |editor1-last=Weiers |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Kämpfe |editor2-first=Hans-Rainer |author-link= |date=1995 |title=Tunguso Sibirica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FPgJ-Ta5TEYC&pg=PA102&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgDEAI |location= |publisher= Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|page=102 |isbn=0946-0349|quote=... Shen Ch'i - liang and his works on the Manchu Language ” ( Proceedings of the Third East Asian Altaistic Conference , Taipei , 1969 ) for information on the late 17th - century dic66 67 68 69 70 71 tionaries of Shen Qiliang ,.|chapter=Illumination and Reverence: Language, Identity, and Power in the Prefaces of the Manchu Mirrors}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rawski |first=Evelyn S. \|author-link= |date= 1998|title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA469&dq=%22shen+qiliang%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiupvCckIb5AhUxM1kFHVLlCKEQ6AF6BAgGEAI|location= |publisher=University of California Press |page= 469|isbn=052092679X|quote=See Office of Shamanism Shen Qiliang , 37 Shenben i * ( god books ) , 241 Shendian Time ( shamanic sacrificial hall ) , 236 Sheng baozuo IT E ( ascend the precious throne ) , 204 Sheng zuo BP ( mount the throne ) , 204 Shengjing .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |issue = 40 of Studies in the History of the Language Sciences Series\volume= 40 of Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science: Studies in the history of the language sciences|last= Chien |first=David |last2=Creamer |first2=Thomas |editor-last=Hartmann |editor-first=R. R. K. |others=Contributor University of Exeter. Dictionary Research Centre|author-link= |date=1986 |title=The History of Lexicography: Papers from the Dictionary Research Centre Seminar at Exeter, March 1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKT4L5Qg7ZkC&pg=PA39&lpg=PA39&dq=%22%22Shen+states+in+the+preface+that+he+intends+his+dictionary+to+be+exhaustive&source=bl&ots=tTR93kbcFd&sig=ACfU3U333UbYJeLPRRMwDUPwlTthyX2mTQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjqpO3b0Ib5AhUkEmIAHdO4CM0Q6AF6BAgkEAM |location= |publisher= John Benjamins Publishing |page= 39|isbn=9027245231|quote=Shen states in the preface that he intends his dictionary to be exhaustive and to act as a "ladder" for those learning Manchu. He goes to great lengths in ...|chapter=A Brief History of Chinese Bilingual Lexicography}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |edition=illustrated|last=Saarela |first=Mårten Söderblom |series=Encounters with Asia|author-link= |date=2020 |title= The Early Modern Travels of Manchu: A Script and Its Study in East Asia and Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PX3nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&dq=%22%22the+eighth+section%22+%22of+the+first+syllabary%22+%22that+published+(1682)%22&source=bl&ots=H6yTkLG1ae&sig=ACfU3U375qssuV4Buk0V37bgXF_C2ayHOQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjozr_U0Yb5AhW0LFkFHSCQAC4Q6AF6BAgvEAM |location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |page= 66|isbn=0812296931|quote=The eighth section (final in – t) of the first syllabary that Shen Qiliang published (1682). Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin— Preußischer Kulturbesitz, ...}}</ref><ref>https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812296938-009/pdf https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812296938-004/pdf https://ebin.pub/the-early-modern-travels-of-manchu-a-script-and-its-study-in-east-asia-and-europe-9780812252071.html https://books.google.com/books?id=PX3nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&dq=%22%22the+eighth+section%22+%22+first+syllabary+that+Shen+Qiliang+published+(1682).%22&source=bl&ots=H6yTkLG4bb&sig=ACfU3U1ZngJoQWMO7DZOOcm_elXCfpaukQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjonuTm0ob5AhUgM1kFHdUXA40Q6AF6BAgDEAM</ref><ref>{{cite book |series=Global Asias|last= Nappi |first=Carla |author-link= |date= 2021|title=Translating Early Modern China: Illegible Cities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ieMmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=%22%22the+eighth+section%22+%22+first+syllabary+that+Shen+Qiliang+published+(1682).%22&source=bl&ots=XcCtR8ZPBs&sig=ACfU3U1BBQIY5to-dt8XGGnd9fqmxtE0mQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjonuTm0ob5AhUgM1kFHdUXA40Q6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=123 |isbn=019263626X|quote=While we are not looking at dictionaries in this chapter , if you'd like to supplement your thinking about lexicography from reading the first chapter of ...}}</ref>

Zhili (Hebei) and Shanxi Han Chinese merchants had sex with Solon women and used Solon men as slave labour in addition to taking their property, guns and horses and beating them if they did not pay their debts when they took credit loans to buy guns, liquor and tobacco. They sold furs.<ref>{{cite book |last= Shan |first=Patrick Fuliang |author-link= |date=2016 |title= Taming China's Wilderness: Immigration, Settlement and the Shaping of the Heilongjiang Frontier, 1900-1931|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYLeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT98&lpg=PT98&dq=The+Gangtong+Uprising+in+1922%E2%80%9323+was+provoked+by+Han+merchants,+who+had+come+from+as+far+as+Shanxi+and+Hebei+%5BZhili%5D+provinces+to+sell+...+The+merchants+sold+goods+on+credit,+and+those+Solon+who+bought+on+credit+soon+became+debt-ridden.&source=bl&ots=luNs-zMGGI&sig=ACfU3U3F91_yBxN2HPmJltXn7_dC0Oq87Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjJpKqn5eT3AhXKpIkEHWSoCBkQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=The%20Gangtong%20Uprising%20in%201922%E2%80%9323%20was%20provoked%20by%20Han%20merchants%2C%20who%20had%20come%20from%20as%20far%20as%20Shanxi%20and%20Hebei%20%5BZhili%5D%20provinces%20to%20sell%20...%20The%20merchants%20sold%20goods%20on%20credit%2C%20and%20those%20Solon%20who%20bought%20on%20credit%20soon%20became%20debt-ridden.&f=false |archive-url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1024.4162&rep=rep1&type=pdf|archive-date=2003 |location= |edition=reprint|publisher=Routledge|page= |isbn=1317046838}}</ref>

Prince Minjur's daughter Dewa Nimbo moved from Taipei, Taiwan to the US to Indiana university so she could pursue Mongolian studies there. In 1985 the same University also issued a Mongolian studies Master's degree to another Torghut Kalmyk from Taiwan.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |others=Contributor Societas Uralo-Altaica|date= 1990|title= Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher, Volumes 9-10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrVnAAAAMAAJ&q=prince+minjur&dq=prince+minjur&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjTzdCB2t_0AhUMDewKHUd0DmAQ6AF6BAgKEAI |location= |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |page= 232|isbn=}}</ref> Princess Dewa Nimbo's mother was Queen Dechen.<ref>{{cite book |last= Kaye|first= Elizabeth |author-link= |date=2021 |title= My Journey in This Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSQ0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT99&lpg=PT99&dq=dewa+nimbo+died&source=bl&ots=tWAfVCgkfu&sig=ACfU3U1xh15aVnnvZk6CtfqzUMdey_FkVA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiT_dDsweD0AhWmh_0HHTJiAzsQ6AF6BAgSEAI#v=onepage&q=dewa%20nimbo%20died&f=false |location= |publisher= |Kechara Media & Publications|page= |isbn=9672408110}}</ref> One of the two sons of Dewa Nimbo, named Prince Iska Minh, became the 25th Tsem Rinpoche. He was born on 24 October, 1965.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tsemrinpoche.com/tsem-tulku-rinpoche/me/my-mom-in-the-herald.html?wm=3049_b111 |title=Dewa Nimbo in the Herald |last= |first= |date= NOV 14, 2014|website=tsemrinpoche.com |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> Prince Minjur's father was Prince Palta. They held the rank of qinwang (first rank prince) during the Qing dynasty and [[Republic of China (1912–1949)]].<ref>{{cite news |last= Leonard |first=Mike |date= |October 1, 1989|title=Princess’s heritage brings her to Bloomington |url= |work= The Herald Times Online|location= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tsemrinpoche.com/tsem-tulku-rinpoche/me/my-mother.html |title=My Mother |last= |first= |date= MAR 12, 2010|website= tsemrinpoche.com|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kechara.com/?p=179 |title= #2: Royal Descent|last= |first= |date= |website=kechara |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> Kyabje Tsem Rinpoche died on 9 April, 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tsemtulku.com/biography/ |title=An abridged biography of H.E. the 25th Tsem Rinpoche |last= |first= |date= |website= tsemtulku|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhammawiki.com/index.php/Tsem_Tulku_Rinpoche |title=Tsem Tulku Rinpoche |last= |first= |date= |website= dhammawiki|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>

<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Tsem_Tulku |title= Tsem Tulku|last= |first= |date= |website=Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people= |date= |title= My Mother|trans-title= |type=photo |language= |url=https://www.pinterest.com/pin/435934438902785669/ |access-date= |archive-url= |archive-date= |format= |time= |location= |publisher= Kechara Malaysia|id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref=}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people= |date= |title=Photo Album: Taiwan – Where I was born… |trans-title= |type= |language= |url=https://www.pinterest.com/pin/640003797048535059/ |access-date= |archive-url= |archive-date= |format= |time= |location= |publisher= Kechara Malaysia |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref=}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people= |date= |title=Photo Album: Taiwan – Where I was born… |trans-title= |type= |language= |url=https://www.pinterest.com/pin/421860690093749552/ |access-date= |archive-url= |archive-date= |format= |time= |location= |publisher=Tsem Rinpoche |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref=}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people= |date= |title= Photo Album: Taiwan – Where I was born…|trans-title= |type= |language= |url= https://www.pinterest.com/pin/421860690093749622/|access-date= |archive-url= |archive-date= |format= |time= |location= |publisher=Tsem Rinpoche |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref=}}</ref> One of Tsem Rinpoche's great grand aunts was Princess Nirgidma who moved to France and married a French diplomat.<ref>{{cite AV media |people= |date= |title= My Royal Great Aunt|trans-title= |type= |language= |url= https://www.pinterest.com/pin/my-memory--435934438902785625/|access-date= |archive-url= |archive-date= |format= |time= |location= |publisher=Kechara Malaysia |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref=}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people= |date= |title= |trans-title= |type=photo |language= |url=https://twitter.com/desmondchong69/status/973063258365075456 |access-date= |archive-url= |archive-date= |format= |time= |location= |publisher= |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref=}}</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/tsemtulku</ref><ref>https://context.reverso.net/translation/french-english/nimbo</ref>

The Urumqi based British consulate received a deposit from Prince Minjur so he could take the money back in British pounds from another UK consulate outside the country, before he left Xinjiang when the Communists were taking over. Prince Minjur was meant to be appointed governor of Xinjiang and in 1947 he had went to Urumqi and Lanzhou from his home in Beijing in order to inspect Xinjiang prior to being appointed governor. The Soviets and Second East Turkestan Republic were occupying Prince Minjur's Ussu headquarters in the 3 districts of Ili so the Nationalists (KMT) were pressured by Prince Minjur to drive the East Turkestan Republic out of his Ussu base and rtake control. Prince Minjur requests General [[Zhang Zhizhong]] aid him and that he would cooperate with the KMT Nationalist government of China as conditions for him accepting to be appointed governor of Xinjiang by Chiang Kai-shek after he was approached for the job in Beijing in 1946 on Chiang Kai-shek's behalf. He was the prince of north Xinjiang's Altai region East Torgut League.<ref>{{cite book |last= Lin |first=Hsiao-ting |author-link= |date=2010 |title= Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|volume=Volumen67 de Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8YtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109&dq=prince+minjur&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjTzdCB2t_0AhUMDewKHUd0DmAQ6AF6BAgLEAI |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher= Routledge|page= 109|isbn=1136923934}}</ref> In Xinjiang in 1938-1939 during Sheng Shicia's rule, unrest in Xinjiang and Tashkurgan forced 100 Kazakhs to flee under Hamga Haji Wagir to British India and stay in Calcutta for a decade and he maintained links to Afghanistan, Pakistan and other India based Kazakhs. These Kazakhs under Hamga Haji Wagir were approached by Chaing Kai-shek who let them back to Xinjiang from India and Hamga Haji Wagir pledged his support to the KMT Nationalists.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Blo-bzaṅ-ye-śes (Panchen Lama II)|last2= Kiripolska|first2=Marta |editor1-last=Kiripolská |editor-first=Marta |others=contributors=Blo-bzaṅ-tshul-khrims (Cha-har Dge-bśes), Kongelige Bibliotek (Denmark). |author-link= |date= 2001|title= Artasidi Qa Yam-u Namtar Cedeg Ni Yuca-yin Esi|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KjZ6gyrgjasC&pg=PA3&dq=prince+minjur&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjTzdCB2t_0AhUMDewKHUd0DmAQ6AF6BAgHEAI

|location= |edition=illustrated, annotated

|pOtto Harrassowitz Verlag|publisher= |page= 3|isbn=3447042885|volume=Volume 140 of Asiatische Forschungen| ISSN= 0571-320X|series=Asiatische Forschungen: Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lin |first=Hsaio-ting |author-link= |date= 2011|title=Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49 |series=Contemporary Chinese Studies Series|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=osn1WrRCelcC&pg=PA277&dq=prince+minjur&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjTzdCB2t_0AhUMDewKHUd0DmAQ6AF6BAgGEAI

|location= |publisher= UBC Press|page=277 |isbn=0774859881}}</ref>

Manchus genocided the Dzungars. Dzungars received no aid from the Russians in their disastrous war with the Qing in the 1750s. Russia continued to reduce Kalmyk autonomy, appointing a viceroy to rule them instead of a khan.<ref>{{cite book |last= Forsyth |first=James |date=2013 |title=The Caucasus: A History |url=https://dokumen.pub/the-caucasus-a-history-0521872952-9780521872959.html |url-status= |location= |edition=illustrated |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521872952 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> With German & Slav farmers settling the Kalmyk pastures, Kalmyks were pushed into marginal lands. In 1771 the Kalmyks were desperate enough to mass emigrate from Astrakhan steppe to Dzungaria. Preyed on by Kazakhs in their 8 month journey, only 70k of original 169k Kalmyks made it.<ref>{{cite book |last= Forsyth |first=James |date=2013 |title=The Caucasus: A History |url=https://dokumen.pub/the-caucasus-a-history-0521872952-9780521872959.html |url-status= |location= |edition=illustrated |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521872952 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> During the 1916 Kazakh [[Basmachi revolt]] against the Russian empire, the Kalmyks (Oirat Mongos) preyed on Kazakhs (Kazakhs were mistakenly called Kirghiz before the 20th century) refugees as they fled to China - their cruel revenge for the Kazakhs killing 60% of Kalmyks during their own flight to China in 1771.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |date= |title=The Revolt of 1916 in Russian Central Asia |volume=Volume 71 of The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science|page=135 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LrhQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT228&lpg=PT228&dq=%22when+the+Kalmyks+who+had+remained+behind+in+Sinkiang+resolved+to+escape+from+the+persecution+of+the+King+of+Jungaria%22&source=bl&ots=s2EZMlaV6b&sig=ACfU3U3nx0qtWRcdoPa3mqOiCWREI_ni-g&hl=en-419&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwil4cTCrdD1AhVLO-wKHWxqCUgQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22when%20the%20Kalmyks%20who%20had%20remained%20behind%20in%20Sinkiang%20resolved%20to%20escape%20from%20the%20persecution%20of%20the%20King%20of%20Jungaria%22&f=false |url-status= |location= |publisher= |isbn= |archive-url= https://dokumen.pub/the-revolt-of-1916-in-russian-central-asia-1421420503-9781421420509.html|archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |editor1-last= Anthony |editor1-first= David W. |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first= Dorcas R. |editor3-last= Khokhlov|editor3-first= Aleksandr A. |editor4-last=Kuznetsov |editor4-first=Pavel F. |editor5-last=Mochalov |editor5-first= Oleg D. |date=2016 |title=A Bronze Age Landscape in the Russian Steppes: The Samara Valley Project |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWmRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67&dq=nogai+horde+kalmyk+khanate&hl=en-419&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwio4uPbqdD1AhVHyaQKHRXnDvoQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=nogai%20horde%20kalmyk%20khanate&f=false |url-status= |location= |publisher= ISD LLC|isbn=1938770323 |archive-url= |archive-date=|volume=Volume 37 of Monumenta Archaeologica}}</ref> The Kazakh nomads brought many Russian women & children as captives on their flight to China. When they found the Russian consul was working to free them, they slaughtered most of them.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |date= |title=The Revolt of 1916 in Russian Central Asia |volume=Volume 71 of The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science|page=134 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LdQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA134&lpg=PA134&dq=%22Stefanovich,+when+at+Uch+Turfan,+worked+to+liberate+these+people+when+they+crossed+the+frontier+with+their+captors.%22&source=bl&ots=Tgo5nki50N&sig=ACfU3U0EiKTtBdPkOX3G4whWKOtjU6acGA&hl=en-419&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi2-KzZrdD1AhXSjqQKHVWDABoQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Stefanovich%2C%20when%20at%20Uch%20Turfan%2C%20worked%20to%20liberate%20these%20people%20when%20they%20crossed%20the%20frontier%20with%20their%20captors.%22&f=false |url-status= |location= |publisher= |isbn= |archive-url= https://dokumen.pub/the-revolt-of-1916-in-russian-central-asia-1421420503-9781421420509.html|archive-date=}}</ref> The actual Kyrgyz were called Kara-Kirghiz (black Kirghiz) while Kazakhs were called Kyrgyz by westerners in the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Duishembieva |first= Jipar |date= 2015 |title=Visions of Community: Literary Culture and Social Change among the Northern Kyrgyz, 1856-1924|type= A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy|chapter= |publisher=University of Washington |docket= |oclc= |url= https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/34091/Duishembieva_washington_0250E_14868.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|pages=20, 21|access-date=}}</ref>

The Oirat Ja Lama skinned Kazakhs alive.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=Anglo-Mongolian Society |date= 1983|title= Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society, Volumes 8-12|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-oLjAAAAMAAJ&q=flayed+kazakh+skin+lama&dq=flayed+kazakh+skin+lama&hl=en-419&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKxfyandH1AhV4R_EDHZtLCHwQ6AF6BAgGEAI|location= |publisher= |page=35 |isbn=|quote=On one occasion , a man from Halh came to Ja Lama's camp claiming to be his brother , and demanding respect for this reason ... The Diluv Hutagt tells one story of how a Kazakh bandit was skinned alive by Dambiijantsan , and even gives ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kaplan |editor1-first= Edward H. |editor2-last= Whisenhunt |editor2-first= Donald W.|editor3-last=Schwarz |editor3-first=Henry G. |volume=Volume 19 of Studies on East Asia|author-link= |date=1994 |title=Opuscula Altaica: Essays Presented in Honor of Henry Schwarz |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=A2VtAAAAMAAJ&q=flayed+kazakh+skin+lama&dq=flayed+kazakh+skin+lama&hl=en-419&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKxfyandH1AhV4R_EDHZtLCHwQ6AF6BAgIEAI|location= |edition=illustrated|publisher= Western Washington|page=159 |isbn=0914584197|quote=... the chest of a Kazakh chieftain be cut open and his heart torn out , after which the skin was flayed from his body . ... Vladimirtsov met Ja Lama in Astrakhan in September 1917.62 On March 7 , 1914 , the Russian diplomatic agent in ...}}</ref>

Oirat Mongol Buddhists in Qinghai were slaughtered and looted by Kazakhs (Moslem Khyber Khasaks) who invaded Tibet via the Nan Shan mountains in Xinjiang. The Salar and Hui Muslims of Qinghai told OSS agent Leonard Francis Clark that the Kazakhs slaughtered 8,000 Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=317 |isbn=}}</ref>

One local Hui Muslims of Qinghai threatened American OSS agent Leonard Francis Clark that if the Muslims and Communists united, they would be unstoppable, and that if China fell to the communists, the Americans would unable to defeat even China's rabble and would suffer huge death tolls in battle. <ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=315, 316 |isbn=}}</ref>

The advance of the Communists under Li Bao (Lin Pao) forced the Hui general Ma Dei-bio to leave Qinghai to confront him, therefore some Kazakh bands were still going around stealing and murdering people. The Mongols were slaughtered by the Kazakhs since the Nationalist government of China disarmed the Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=318, 319 |isbn=}}</ref>

The Tibetan Rong-pa taught agriculture to former nomad Mongols who began using camels to plough their land in Tsaidam. Hui Muslim governor Ma Bufang appointed Hui Muslim colonel Ma Dei-bio as southern Qinghai's Amban. Me Dei-bio slaughtered Ngoloks by throwing them into the yellow river after wrapping them in leather. 480 Ngolok families were killed in this manner. He built a fort with Chinese stone lions around it guarded by Hui Muslims to control the Tibetans. Hui Muslim Ma Sheng-lung wore a white Moslem skull-cap, had a white stallion and had a Tibetan cap made of red fox and had a poniard and sword.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=312, 313 |isbn=}}</ref>

The Communists triumphed and took all of Xinjiang, northwest China, northern China, Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, and 300,000 anti-communist forces were lost. Hui Muslim governor Ma Bufang ordered the expedition under Clark to flee back to Xinjiang after the communist victory via radiogram. A group of dancers and musicians from Khotan were entertaining the Clark expedition when the news broke. Kazakhs stole Mongol horses from the expedition and the Hui Muslim leader was told by a Tibetan scout that the Kazakhs did it. The Kazakhs were fleeing to the India-Afghan border and the Mongols wanted to attack them and take the horses back before they made it but they had no resources to do it.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=320 |isbn=}}</ref>

As China was falling to the Communists, OSS agent Leonard Francis Clark drafted a plan while he was in Qinghai for fighting communism all over Asia, planning for him to attack the Soviet Union. He planned to go to his headquarters in Lanzhou (Lanchow) to give Ma Bufang the plans as it was a matter of time when all northwestern areas under Ma Bufang would come under communist control. He believed only a path to central and south Asia on land could keep Ma Bufang's forces in one pieces. They were planning to save 30,000 Muslim soldiers for war against communism and smuggle in arms through Tibet. Clark said that Ma Bufang should visit Turkey and Cairo and make hajj to Mecca for calling for support against international communism. Well armed Kazakhs over a period of eight years before Clark's expedition had slaughtered and devastated the Oirat Mongols in the Tsaidam Basin of Xinjiang, the 1,000 Kazakh families (Hussack) came to the Tsaidam via the Nan shan in Xinjiang and then came back to where they came from after 8 years of war against the Mongols. Clark noted they dwelled in gers and they spoke Turki and were "fanatic Mohammedans, professional killers". Mongol Hoshun (banner) were divided into Sumon (arrow) and one arrow lost 1,000 horses in a single night to the Kazakhs. Northern Qinghai (Amdo) still had 26 fragmented Mongol banners after the Kazakh slaughters of Mongols. These banner divisions were created by the Qing dynasty who scattered the Mongols on the western borders.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=330, 331 |isbn=}}</ref>

Some Tibetans in Qinghai claimed descent from the Tanguts of Khara Khoto in Wetsern Xia and claimed that their ancestors fled to Qinghai after a Chinese army expelled them from Khara Khoto. The Oirat Mongol Prince Dorje told Leonard Francis Clark and the Tibetans and the Hui and Salar Muslims Abdul and Solomon Ma on how the Manchus committed the [[Dzungar genocide]] against his Oirat people and how they conquered Xinjiang from the Oirat Mongol Torgut WEst banner and destroying the south wing of the Mongols. They took control of the four Khanates of the Khalkha in Outer Mongolia and the 5th Khanate (the Oirat Torgut horde). He also spoke about those Torgut Oirats who had earlier migrated to Kalmykia in Russia and then fought against the Ottoman Turkish Muslim empire, and then crushed the Swedish king Charles XII, and then how 400,0000 Torguts migrated back to Dzungaria in 1771, fighting against the Cossack armies of Tsarina of Russia CAtherine the great. They lost 300,000 children, women and men to the Cossacks as they went back to Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=338, 339 |isbn=}}</ref>

He mentioned how this had made Russia "lose" the support of Mongols. 50,000 Oirats survived after 300,000 Oirat Mongols were slaughtered by Russian Cossacks on Catherine's orders. Prince Dorje then proclaimed that the Oirat Torghut banners were ready for revenge aginst the "Slavic masses", by fighting against the Soviet Russian red army and asked Clark for America to help the west Mongols against the Slavic Russians. Clark said that the Pentagon and White House would decide and that he could do nothing about it since he was busy with incting Muslims in Qinghai to jihad against communists and on the Amne Machin mountain to find radioactive material.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=340, 341|isbn=}}</ref>

The Buddhist Oirat Mongols of Qinghai including Prince Dorje and Torja (in his own Ger) gathered with Leonard Frances Clark. Clark noted the Lamaist Buddhist shrine which they prayed to. The Hui Muslims and Salar Muslims did not even want to stoop to entering the Mongol ger. The Mongol women and their husbands whispered in fear on how afraid they were of the Hui Muslims and how three times in a century the Muslims would go on jihad against them in Qinghai and Torja feared the next one was soon. Torja had only one musket.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=347|isbn=}}</ref>

The Mongol Khans and Chinese emperors had long received dancing girls from Kucha in Xinjiang as tribute. Kucha (Uyghur) dancing girls danced in the Qinghai yamen governor palace of Ma Bufang in Xining (Sining, Hsi-ning) for Leonard Clark. Clark said she was dancing like the Seven Veils of Maya and pictured her as Alexander queen's Roxelana as she was dressed in blue and gold. Oirat Prince Dorje started at the girls, including a Persian looking one and polished his spectacles (pince-nez) to stare at them and look away from his books.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=23|isbn=}}</ref>

Black yaks and Bactrian camels with 2 humps in caravans with Afghans, Afridis, Salars, Kazakhs, Quergares, Oiuzhurs, Turki, Taranchi, Hui (Tungans), Han Chinese, Mongols and Tibetans numbering 60,000 were moving around Xining (Sining) as Clark noticed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=17|isbn=}}</ref>

From the Khyber pass some Sharaunis and Afridis came to Qinghai to join the Tungan Hui and Salar cavalry of Ma Bufang. One of the Tungn and Salars had 19 shotgun, sword and gunshot injuries and his name was Habibu. They came from Hezhou (Hochou) and Shengwha and numbered 50 wearing black Cossack polished boots or Tibetan boots, red robes and fur caps. One of the Muslims was Tan Chen-te, forty with a sword which he used to behead people in fighting and Abdul. There were 20 Tibetan Buddhists who sought death in battle to achieve Nirvana and were all over 6 feet tall. They had Tibetan broadswords, chained Tibetan short daggers, fifty shot magazines with Belgian and German automatic battle pistols and European rifles. Clark was afraid of these men and that he could have no authority over them as they went further and further way from Governor Ma Bufang (Ma Pu-Fang).<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=30, 31|isbn=}}</ref>

One of the Hui and Salar Muslims assigned to guard Clark was named Hassan. Clark had bought an American cavalry saddle froma missionary in Xinjing for 30 dollars and a Mongol saddle. He put a sheepskin robe on it to make a pillow. Ma Bufang's son was Marshal Ma Jiyuan (Ma-yuan) who fought agianst the communists as the northwestern supreme field commander. One of Ma Jiyuan's personal bodyguards was a Salar, 26 years old, named Ma Wei-shan (Abdul) and he was called the "deadliest gunman in China". He was assigned to the Clark expedition and Clark favourable compared Abdul and the other Salar and Hui Muslims to Pashtun Khuber pass Waziri and Afridi tribesmen and believed them to be fierce warriors. Abdul fought in Persia and Afghanistan. He was a Qinghai Peace Preservation Corps sergeant serving under Ma Bufang and a guerilla strategist. Clark complimented him again by saying in a European army he would have been made a captaincy, and personally led 300 cavalry men into battle and could easily create and make his own battle plan which would make majors envious across the world. He refused to use a tent like other non-commissioned officers. He would just use buttermilk cured sheepskin robes unless it was raining or snowing. Colonel Ma said that Abdul killed communists, bandits, Tungans, Tibetans, Turks, Mongols, Japanese and Russians in battle. Abdul claimed that Tibetans were far superior to Japanese. These Salar and Hui Muslims if the geography allowed mostly charged enemy flanks on horseback if they were not pinned down by gunfire. These Salar and Hui Muslims were both well trained with guns and horse and mostly did not take prisoners in Tibet unless they needed questions. They usually cut the fallen throats after winning a battle. Clark favourable compared these Hui and Salar Muslims and Tibetans with Gurkha warriors in the British Indian army and Pashtun Muslims of the Northwest Frontier Province of British India. Abdul used his right hand as his gun hand which he didn't wear a glove on, he could sing, he didn't drink alcohol, he was extremely intimidating but mannered, disciplined and quiet, on his forehead he had a bayonet scar, he was handsome, blue eyed, white skinned, over 6 feet tall. He had buckhorn resting forks (bifurcated) on his chased silver inlaid .30 caliber Skoda rifle, a dagger hafted with gold and bone, a sub-machine automatic pistol of German designed but manufactured in China, and wool, fur, cloth and sheepskin robes. He was paid in his equipment, food and a monthly pay in Chinese silver yuan equivalent to $30.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=106, 107|isbn=}}</ref>

Abdul knew Chinese, Tibetan and Salar languages and could sing in them. Abdul became a commissioned officer under Colonel Ma. Abdul led the songs for the march. Abdul smoked a chinese water pipe out of aluminum and he told of his military's tactics against Tibetan brigands to Clark (Clark-ah). He fought off 5 Tibetan attacks. Abdul led 1,000 riflemand and horses to protect caravans. Colonel Ma and Abdul fought off many Tibetan attacks and cavalry charges and said that in northwest China the best guerilla fighter was the colonel. He was assigned to guard against Tibet and protect the south flank of ma Bufang for this reason, but said that even Ngoloks were too much for colonel Ma. The Muslims with the Clark expedition moderately smoked and some drank alcohol but many orthodox Muslims in the region did not drink alcohol or smoke tobacco. Prince Dorje then started discussing security and scouts for the expedition. Captain Tan and Colonel Ma tried to conscript Tibetans to work for them at Fort Ta Ho Pa but were unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=108, 109|isbn=}}</ref>

Colonel Ma and the expedition with Clark were armed with miscellaneous weapons and had 3 Japanese Nambu machine guns and 50 rifles. They sent a 2 Tanguts to find water. They had Chinese potato-masher hand grenades, American Tommy sub machine guns manufactured in China, Skoda rifles and a small Japanese mortar. They kept their safeties on with bullets in chambers and guns loaded and protected their flanks and rear by riding in fan formation against Tibetan brigand attacks. The Hui Tungans used the word yeh ma and Tibetans used the word kyang for kulan, the feces of wild asses. Eagles were called yeh ying and rabbits were called yeh tu. Tse shar meant "peak shining time". Tibetan drivers whipped yaks and used woooden saddles for their yaks while they dressed in sheepskins.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Marching Wind |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |location= |publisher= Funk & Wagnalls |page=68, 68|isbn=}}</ref>

Lin Nu's paternal nephew Li Guangqi wrote about Han Chinese who married Semu women and their children became like their mothers and wives. "''there are among them real semu, false semu, and also those who follow their wives to become semu, or who followed their mothers in practicing divergent customs. They thus brought disorder into our race (zulei), they despise our rules and do not respect our morality.''" after his uncle Lin Nu married an Iranian Semu woman.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Abt |first=Oded |date=January 2012 |title=Muslim Ancestry and Chinese Identity in Southeast China |type= THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE “DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY”|chapter= |publisher=Tel Aviv University The Lester & Sally Entin Faculty of Humanities School of Historical Studies |docket= |oclc= |url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/arena-attachments/2168163/afd1cac728ac6989b73ba7f771dbba44.pdf?1526185838 |access-date=|pages=196, 197}} </ref>

The Han Chinese Lin-Li family of Li Zhi (Li Chih) and Lin Nu and Lin Guangqi, who married Middle Eastern Muslim women,<ref>{{cite book |last=Chan |first=Hok-Lam |author-link= |date=2017 |title= Li Chih 1527-1602 in Contemporary Chinese Historiography: New light on his life and works|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpwuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11&lpg=PR11&dq=%22married+women+of+non-Han+western+asian+background%22&source=bl&ots=TAYT1d9QqA&sig=ACfU3U1kIQbJamkRYkpv_94kNLqNT_4j7Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjV45Cry4H5AhUQacAKHUW5CH0Q6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false|edition=annotated|location= |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Revivals|page= xi |isbn=1351711792}}</ref> violated Han Chinese Confucian and Ming legal prohibitions on paternal cousin marriage, with the two Li and Lin branches of the same paternal family marrying each other's females.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chan |first=Hok-Lam |author-link= |date=2017 |title= Li Chih 1527-1602 in Contemporary Chinese Historiography: New light on his life and works|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpwuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=%22+it+is+interesting+to+note+that+several+of+them+had+married+Western+Asian+females+of+Islamic+faith.%22&source=bl&ots=TAYT1d9Psv&sig=ACfU3U3tFXZF5arYJH1LVyvZwkhh3dFoWA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi26K6Cy4H5AhXTSsAKHeEpAOIQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false |edition=annotated|location= |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Revivals|page= 15 |isbn=1351711792}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last=Chan |first=Hok-Lam |author-link= |date=2017 |title= Li Chih 1527-1602 in Contemporary Chinese Historiography: New light on his life and works|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpwuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=%22changed+his+surname+to+li+and+disguised+himself+under+a+distant+clan%22&source=bl&ots=TAYT1d9Wqw&sig=ACfU3U2iW_eJ-QboZnziI7dnbLIQ-N_JXg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi2v6jHzYH5AhX2SUEAHbMbCPcQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=%22changed%20his%20surname%20to%20li%20and%20disguised%20himself%20under%20a%20distant%20clan%22&f=false |edition=annotated|location= |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Revivals|page= 44 |isbn=1351711792}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chan |first=Hok-Lam |author-link= |date=2017 |title= Li Chih 1527-1602 in Contemporary Chinese Historiography: New light on his life and works|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpwuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=%22constraints+of+these+feudal+social+customs,+must+have+had%22&source=bl&ots=TAYT2c8Sqv&sig=ACfU3U2i9oO-ZGRA1F_UfuFnqafG583Hag&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjT-9bOl4T5AhXKiFwKHX3xCBkQ6AF6BAgDEAM|edition=annotated|location= |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Revivals|page= 50|isbn=1351711792}}</ref> The paternal ancestors of the Lin-Li family during the late Tang dynasty came to Fujian (Fukien) in southern China from northern China's Henan (Honan) province, Geshi (Ku-shih) county.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chan |first=Hok-Lam |author-link= |date=2017 |title= Li Chih 1527-1602 in Contemporary Chinese Historiography: New light on his life and works|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpwuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=%22%22some+adopted+the+islamic+faith+and+married+western+asian+females%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiU4re5y4H5AhWCWMAKHc9sDPoQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q&f=false |edition=annotated|location= |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Revivals|page= 8, 9 |isbn=1351711792}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Handler-Spitz |first1=Rivi |last2= |first2= |date= September 2008|title=Li Zhi’s Relativism and Skepticismin the Multicultural Late Ming |url= http://www.concentric-literature.url.tw/issues/Asia%20and%20the%20Other/2.pdf|journal=Concentric: Literary and Cultural Studies 34.2 |volume= |issue= |pages=13-35 |page=21 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Wu|first1= Pei-yi|last2= |first2= |date= |title= |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2719014 |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume= 41|issue=1 |pages=304–17 |doi= https://doi.org/10.2307/2719014|access-date=}}</ref><ref> {{cite web |url=https://inf.news/en/culture/00faae2f30b9d5b2c171905e2d046946.html |title=The ancestors of the thinker Li Zhi |last= |first= |date=2022-07-18 12:09 HKT |website=iNEWS |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Wang |first=Qiang |author-link= |date= |title=Legendary Port of the Maritime Silk Routes Zayton (Quanzhou) |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338901178_Legendary_Port_of_the_Maritime_Silk_Routes_Zayton_Quanzhou|location= |publisher=PETER LANG |page= |isbn=978-1-4331-7037-9|doi=10.3726/b15743}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=CHEN |first= QINGLIANG |date= September 1999|title=LI ZHI (1527-1602) AND HIS LITERARY THOUGHT |type=Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS |chapter= |publisher= |page=13|docket= |oclc= |url=https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2527&context=theses |access-date=}} </ref><ref> {{cite journal |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date=1980 |title= Li Chih's Family, His Old Home, and His Wife's Tombstone|url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2753/CSH0009-463313010241?journalCode=mcsh20&|journal= Chinese Studies in History|volume= 13|issue= 1-2 |pages=41-77 |doi=https://doi.org/10.2753/CSH0009-463313010241 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title= CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T’ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica |date=December 15, 1991 |year= |volume=V|number=Fasc. 4|last= Chen |first= Da-Sheng|pages=443-446|publisher= |location= |id= |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-vii |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cnlin.org/Item/Show.asp?m=1&d=3513 |title=林李同宗 |last= |first= |date=2014年04月28日 |website= 中华林氏总会|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/SabinaKnight1/status/1421824990589112326 |title= |last= |first= |date= |website= |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= 2001 |title= Hormuz in Yuan and Ming sources |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/befeo_0336-1519_2001_num_88_1_3509 |journal=Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient |volume=88 |issue= |pages=27-75 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref> <ref>Kühner, Hans. “‘The Barbarians’ Writing Is like Worms, and Their Speech Is like the Screeching of Owls’ - Exclusion and Acculturation in the Early Ming Period.” Zeitschrift Der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, vol. 151, no. 2, 2001, pp. 407–29. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43380301.</ref><ref>https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:te9WK3BUMIIJ:www.mnwhstq.com/szzy/qzwszlqwk/201608/t20160816_106141.htm</ref>

A Muslim Arab woman in Quanzhou married a Han Chinese convert to Islam named Su Tangshe (苏唐社). He adopted Ahmed (阿合抹) as a Muslim name. The Pu clan which was Muslim married off their daughters to Su Tangshe's grandsons and sons. Islam was practiced for four generations of the Su famly after conversion then they apostazied. The Su family currenlt practice Han religion and no longer practice Islam and declare themselves as Han Chinese due to their paternal ancestry, refusing to identify as Hui. They don't offer pork and instead offer beef to their ancestors in the ancestral sacrifices for their maternal Muslim ancestor.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Abt |first=Oded |date=January 2012 |title=Muslim Ancestry and Chinese Identity in Southeast China |type= THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE “DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY”|chapter= |publisher=Tel Aviv University The Lester & Sally Entin Faculty of Humanities School of Historical Studies |docket= |oclc= |url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/arena-attachments/2168163/afd1cac728ac6989b73ba7f771dbba44.pdf?1526185838 |access-date=|pages=41, 333, 334}} </ref>

The Lishi says, "''All of the Western peoples were annihilated, with a number of foreigners with large noses mistakenly killed while for three days the gates were closed and the executions were carried out. [...] The corpses of the Pus were all stripped naked, their faces to the west. [...] They were all judged according to the 'five mutilating punishments' and then executed with their carcasses thrown into pig troughs. This was in revenge for their murder and rebellion in the Song.''"<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Abt |first=Oded |date=January 2012 |title=Muslim Ancestry and Chinese Identity in Southeast China |type= THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE “DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY”|chapter= |publisher=Tel Aviv University The Lester & Sally Entin Faculty of Humanities School of Historical Studies |docket= |oclc= |url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/arena-attachments/2168163/afd1cac728ac6989b73ba7f771dbba44.pdf?1526185838 |access-date=|pages=298}} </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.changshifang.com/cs/lishi/10413_3.html |archive-url=https://archive.is/iQHZV|archive-date=3 Mar 2021 |title= |last= |first= |date= |website= |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Chaffee|first= John W. |author-link= |date=2018 |title= The Muslim Merchants of Premodern China: The History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750–1400|series=New Approaches to Asian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfBmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157&dq=%22My+account+of+the+Ispah+Rebellion+relies+heavily+on+Maejima%27s+detailed+account.+Chang+Hsing-lang,+%E2%80%9CThe+Rebellion+of+the+Persian+Garrison+in+Ch%27%C3%BCan-chou%22&source=bl&ots=o2yiNlkpRC&sig=ACfU3U3l0UnHRJboQYLHE6U6qqOMQK2pLw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjrscrqy9z1AhU2R_EDHdfxAUgQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=157 |isbn=1108640095|quote=The rebellion – or regime – began in 1357 when the Persian military officials ... Chang Hsing-lang, “The Rebellion of the Persian Garrison in Ch'üan-chou ...}}</ref> https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/muslim-merchants-of-premodern-china/mongols-and-merchant-power/98C2AD9F5D705E5DFC16414131CAFD66 https://vdoc.pub/documents/the-muslim-merchants-of-premodern-china-the-history-of-a-maritime-asian-trade-diaspora-7501400-5ino018tkib0

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia&action=edit&section=3

One of the Ilkhanate Mongol princesses was married off to Smbat I (ruled 1297-1299).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dashdondog |first=Bayarsaikhan |author-link= |date=2010 |title= The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335) |series=Armenian Research Center collection|volume=Volume 24 of Brill's Inner Asian Library|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HrqqhduBapQC&pg=PA198&lpg=PA198&dq=%22in+his+absence,+his+brother+smbat+I%22%22&source=bl&ots=W1jIlXNnXm&sig=ACfU3U0Y47hZ2nCLQQzYF4q_oLvFdyw13g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiY0r2Q6PDyAhUNFFkFHWFKDmoQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22in%20his%20absence%2C%20his%20brother%20smbat%20I%22%22&f=false|location= |publisher=PRILL |edition=illustrated, reprint |page=198|isbn= 9004186352 |archive-url=https://www.academia.edu/37370231/The_Mongols_and_the_Armenians_1220_1335_By_Bayarsaikhan_Dashdondog_Brill_s_Inner_Asian_Library_Editors_Michael_R_Drompp_Devin_DeWeese_VOLUME_24|archive-date=2021 07 03 |archive-url2=https://www.academia.edu/37370231 |archive-date2=2021 07 03 |archive-url3= https://www.academia.edu/39695576 |archive-date3=2021 07 03 |archive-url4=https://www.academia.edu/37370231/The_Mongols_and_the_Armenians_1220-1335_By_Bayarsaikhan_Dashdondog_Brill_s_Inner_Asian_Library_Editors_Michael_R._Drompp_Devin_DeWeese_VOLUME_24|archive-date4=2021 07 03 }}</ref>

Bugha Chink-san's daughter, Songur who was a Mongol princess was the second wife of the polygamous Georgian King Demetre II who had 3 wives and had 3 children to his Mongol wife. Trebizond's monarch Alexius III (1338-1390) married their daughter Jigda.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gumilev |first=Lev Nikolaevich |editor=Lecturer in History Royal Holloway and Bedford New College Lyndal Roper |author-link= |others=Translated by R. E. F. Smith|date=1987 |title=Searches for an Imaginary Kingdom: The Legend of the Kingdom of Prester John |series=Past and Present Publications, Studies in Natural Language Processing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N608AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA199&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwAHoECAUQAg |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=199 |isbn=0521322146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date= |title= |url= |location= |publisher= |page=180 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dashdondog |first=Bayarsaikhan |author-link= |date=2010 |title= The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335) |series=Armenian Research Center collection|volume=Volume 24 of Brill's Inner Asian Library|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HrqqhduBapQC&pg=PA180&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwAXoECAoQAg |location= |publisher=PRILL |edition=illustrated, reprint |page=180|isbn= 9004186352|chapter=CHAPTER FIVE MONGOLARMENIAN MILITARY COOPERATION: STAGE I: THE CONQUEST OF THE MIDDLE EAST 12581260}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rayfield |first=Donald|author-link= |date=2013 |title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC&pg=PA130&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwAnoECAYQAg |location= |publisher=Reaktion Books |page=130 |isbn=1780230702}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lane |first= George |author-link= |date=2003 |title=Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance |series=Routledge Studies in the History of Iran and Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlCBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA259&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwA3oECAMQAg |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=250 |isbn=1134431031}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Johann von |editor-last=Morosan |editor-first=Vladimir |others=

Translated by Vladimir Morosan|author-link= |date=1980 |title=Russian Church Singing: History from the origins to the mid-seventeenth century|volume=Volume 2 of Russian Church Singing, Johann von Gardner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2eTamGqyQhQC&pg=PA62&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwBHoECAQQAg |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |page=62 |isbn=0881410462}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Baumer |first=Christoph |author-link= |date=2021 |title=History of the Caucasus: Volume 1: At the Crossroads of Empires |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_W01EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA258&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwBXoECAkQAg |location= |publisher= Bloomsbury Publishing|page=258 |isbn=0755639693}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Spuler |first1=Bertold |last2=Bagley |first2=Frank Ronald Charles |author-link= |date= |title=The Muslim World a Historical Survey Part Ii the Mongol Period |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdAUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA33&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwBnoECAsQAg |location= |publisher=Brill Archive |page=33 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Curtin |first= Jeremiah |author-link= |date=1908 |title=The Mongols in Russia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7kNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA90&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwB3oECAgQAg |location= |publisher=Little Brown |page=90 |isbn=1404725024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Suny |first=Ronald Grigor |author-link= |date=1994 |title=The Making of the Georgian Nation |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=riW0kKzat2sC&pg=PA45&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwCHoECAIQAg|location= |publisher= Indiana University Press|page= 45|isbn=0253209153}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Franklin D. |author-link= |date=2014 |title=Rumi - Past and Present, East and West: The Life, Teachings, and Poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YB29DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT100&dq=georgian+marry+mongol+princess&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi869O75fDyAhXJmuAKHYT3BnQQ6AEwCXoECAcQAg |location= |edition=revised|publisher=Simon and Schuster |page= |isbn=1780747373}}</ref>

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mongols_in_China&action=edit&section=2

Many Han Chinese were settled on military farms in Inner Mongolia during the Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last= HURELBAATAR|first=A. |editor-last1=Kotkin|editor-first1=Stephen |editor-last2= Elleman|editor-first2=Bruce A.|author-link= |date=1999|series=Northeast Asia Seminar|title= Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BoWGituXr8MC&pg=PA192&lpg=PA192&dq=%22led+to+a+renewed+increase+of+the+sedentary+population,+most+of+which+was+Han+Chinese%22&source=bl&ots=CR83PMwCRB&sig=ACfU3U20ReqhY_CL-Nuz_GJ-cqgFn3jouw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjqj9rO09_3AhUWmIkEHeMdAx8Q6AF6BAgHEAM#v=onepage&q=%22led%20to%20a%20renewed%20increase%20of%20the%20sedentary%20population%2C%20most%20of%20which%20was%20Han%20Chinese%22&f=false|location= |edition=illustrated, reprint|publisher= M.E. Sharpe|page=192 |isbn=0765605368}}</ref>

The Mongol Eight Banners and the territorial administrative unit banners used in Mongolia were two different organizations.<ref>{{cite book |last= Tighe |first=Justin |author-link= |date= 2021|series=Brill's Inner Asian Library|title=Constructing Suiyuan: The Politics of Northwestern Territory and Development in Early Twentieth-Century China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIZSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=%22the+great+majority+of+mongol+tribes%22+%22submitted+to+the+manchus+later%22&source=bl&ots=HM7LYyjoko&sig=ACfU3U3fPuwz4QWjH7zcjnWZOWx9wBfsaA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiFnPnbofP2AhVYK80KHXxRDGkQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher= BRILL

|page=29-32 |isbn=9047407881}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Tsai |first=Wei-chieh|date=June 2017 |title=MONGOLIZATION OF HAN CHINESE AND MANCHU SETTLERS IN QING MONGOLIA, 1700–1911 |type=Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University |publisher=ProQuest LLC |page=4 |url=https://proquest.com/openview/5c6d78516e80433b02e24bbac4409096/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y }}</ref>

A group of Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty called "Mongol followers" immigrated to Inner Mongolia who worked as servants for Mongols and Mongol princes and married Mongol women in violation of Qing law which forbade intermarriage between Mongols and Han, since Qing officials were often too lazy to enforce the law. Their descendants continued to marry Mongol women and changed their ethnicity to Mongol as they assimilated into the Mongol people, an example of this were the ancestors of [[Li Shouxin]]. They distinguished themselves apart from "true Mongols" 真蒙古.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Tsai |first=Wei-chieh|date=June 2017 |title=MONGOLIZATION OF HAN CHINESE AND MANCHU SETTLERS IN QING MONGOLIA, 1700–1911 |type=Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University |publisher=ProQuest LLC |page=6, 7, 12, 17, 20, 26, 27, 30, 42, 52, 80, 84, 86, 92, 93, 99, 104, 105, 106, 114, 115, 204, 212, 213, 224, 265, 266, 267, 225, 226, 38, 50 |url=https://proquest.com/openview/5c6d78516e80433b02e24bbac4409096/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Xiaoyuan |title=Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911-1950 |date=2006 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0804754268 |page=117 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhJY7VgEWTUC&q=li+shouxin+zhen+menggu&pg=PA117}}</ref><ref>BORJIGIN, BURENSAIN. “The Complex Structure of Ethnic Conflict in the Frontier: Through the Debates around the 'Jindandao Incident' in 1891.” Inner Asia, vol. 6, no. 1, 2004, pp. 45–48. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23615320.</ref> The Ingji bondservants and Bahu who moved to Mongolia as human dowry of Manchu princesses were mostly descended from Han Chinese and they married Mongol women.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Tsai |first=Wei-chieh|date=June 2017 |title=MONGOLIZATION OF HAN CHINESE AND MANCHU SETTLERS IN QING MONGOLIA, 1700–1911 |type=Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University |publisher=ProQuest LLC |page=49, 20, 202, 203, 204, 205 |url=https://proquest.com/openview/5c6d78516e80433b02e24bbac4409096/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y }}</ref> Han Chinese guides, fur hunters and mushroom pickers lived in ger yurts and married Mongol women as they were given sanctuary by Mongols from the authorities during their illegal marmot and mushroom hunting.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schlesinger |first= Jonathan |author-link= |date= 2017 |title=A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCKaDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=%22some+had+mongol+wives+or+lived+in+mongol+style+gers%22&source=bl&ots=_Vj6Di4opl&sig=ACfU3U1j-P7VKgrLJpCSys1vbDD193Le6Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiFpeSnqPP2AhVZK80KHWgMBB0Q6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22some%20had%20mongol%20wives%20or%20lived%20in%20mongol%20style%20gers%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Stanford University Press|page=121 |isbn=1503600688}}</ref> Illegal Han Chinese poachers, woodcutters who made charcoal were cohabiting with Mongol women near the south of the Buur river in Bayanbulag southwest of Kiakhta, where the Qing authorities had officials banned all Han Chinese and Mongols from staying.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schlesinger |first= Jonathan |author-link= |date= 2017 |title=A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCKaDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=%22Chinese+men%22+%22mixed+up+living+with+Mongol+women%22&source=bl&ots=_Vj6Di9mmj&sig=ACfU3U3N0w6VSfn8m_L-yQE9lDYxfesiCw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiCnLKJuvP2AhXQG80KHSKBACkQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Chinese%20men%22%20%22mixed%20up%20living%20with%20Mongol%20women%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Stanford University Press|page=102 |isbn=1503600688}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Schlesinger |first=Jonathan |date=2012 |title= The Qing Invention of Nature:Environment and Identity in Northeast China and Mongolia, 1750-1850 |type= Doctoral dissertation|chapter= |publisher= Harvard University |docket= |oclc= |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/28940535.pdf |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Schlesinger |first=Jonathan |date=2012 |title= The Qing Invention of Nature:Environment and Identity in Northeast China and Mongolia, 1750-1850 |type= Doctoral dissertation|chapter= |publisher= Harvard University |docket= |oclc= |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/9773744/Schlesinger_gsas.harvard_0084L_10570.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=3 |access-date=}}</ref> Han Chinese, Mongols and Russians were all banned by the Qing from the karun border guard areas between Mongolia and Russia like the lake Khövsgöl region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schlesinger |first= Jonathan |author-link= |date= 2017 |title=A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCKaDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA147 |location= |publisher=Stanford University Press|page=147 |isbn=1503600688}}</ref> Local Mongols sheltered Han Chinese illegal mushroom pickers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schlesinger |first= Jonathan |author-link= |date= 2017 |title=A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCKaDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |location= |publisher=Stanford University Press|page=111, 122|isbn=1503600688}}</ref> The Qing clamped down on potential Mongol rebellion by stopping Mongol free travel betwen tribes and blocking them from going into Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date= |title=Muscovite and Mandarin: Russia's Trade with China and Its Setting, 1727-1805 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQZfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT172&dq=Thus+not+only+Russians+but+Mongols+and+Chinese+were+prohibited+from%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjx_pSgxfP2AhWBQc0KHZubAaUQ6AF6BAgGEAI |location= |publisher= |page= |isbn=}}</ref>

Many Han Chinese men from Gansu, Shaanxi and Shanxi moved to Inner Mongolia bought Mongol land, registered as banner residents, married Mongol women and took on Mongol names.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Liping |author-link= |date= 2022 |title= The Imperial Creation of Ethnicity: Chinese Policies and the Ethnic Turn in Inner Mongolian Politics, 1900-1930 |series=Inner Asia Book Series

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kR1nEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=%22they+adopted+mongolian+names,+married+mongol+women,+registered+in+the+banners%22&source=bl&ots=6MbPuPsP5n&sig=ACfU3U1491M9F2KuY1N4iA4_5q5okHPXNw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjRm4C009_3AhVdjIkEHdU_DaoQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=%22they%20adopted%20mongolian%20names%2C%20married%20mongol%20women%2C%20registered%20in%20the%20banners%22&f=false |location= |publisher=BRILL|page=46 |isbn=9004511784}}</ref> Children of Han Chinese men and Mongol women are now registered as Mongols.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=BILLÉ |first1=FRANCK |last2= |first2= |date= 2009|title=Cooking the Mongols/Feeding the Han: Dietary and Ethnic Intersections in Inner Mongolia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23614961?seq=7 |journal= Inner Asia|volume=11 |issue=2 |page=211 |doi= |access-date=15 May 2022}}</ref>

Han Chinese men who came into Outer Mongolia and married Mongol women in Khüree, Kiakhta and Uliasutai as single men working as caravan workers and merchants, some of the Han Chinese males were as young as 10 or 12.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schlesinger |first= Jonathan |date=2017 |title= A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aCKaDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA101&dq=%22many+Chinese+merchants+took+Mongol+wives%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwik9YSDhPqEAxWQXEEAHZnXBs4Q6AF6BAgHEAI |publisher=Stanford University Press |page=101 |isbn=1503600688}}</ref>

Han Chinese women were banned from going to Mongolia by the Qing government, and only Han Chinese men could come. Even though officially intermarriages were banned between different religions and ethnicities, they still happened with Khalkha Mongol women in Outer Mongolia engaging in common law marriages with Han Chinese men and cohabiting with them. The mixed children took on their Mongol mother's khoshun and ere called double wombed (erliz) and engaged in activities as merchants. The Mongol wife benefited from being able to have a yurt and clothes and food while the Mongols parents would have a son in law so they married their daughters off to the men. Sometimes the marriages lasted decades, years or were temporary since Han Chinese men would go back home.<ref>{{cite book |last=Boikova |first= Elena |issn=0571-320X|editor-last=Veit|editor-first=Veronika |date= 2007|title=The Role of Women in the Altaic World: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th Meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA37&dq=young+men+khalkha+wives&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjA6dTM1PmEAxWPa_EDHQHhDVkQ6AF6BAgIEAI |location=Moskau |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |page=37 |edition=illustrated|chapter=Common-Law Marriage in Pre-Revolutionary Mongolia|volume=152 |isbn=3447055375}}</ref> Mongol Buddhist Lamas also were customers of Mongol Khalkha prostitutes. In 1927 Outer Mongol Khalkha women continued to engaged in temporary marriage with Han Chinese merchants as seen by Ma Hetian. 80-90% of Han Chinese merchants engaged in temporary marriage with Mongol women called khüükhen. Russians like Maisky also observed Mongol women having children with Han Chinese men in Khovd, Uliastai and Urge in Outer Mongolia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Terbish |first=Baasanjav |date=2023 |title= Sex in the Land of Genghis Khan: From the Times of the Great Conqueror to Today|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DA-4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59&dq=young+men+khalkha+wives&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjA6dTM1PmEAxWPa_EDHQHhDVkQ6AF6BAgGEAI |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |page=59 |isbn=1666937509}}</ref> Khüükhen or hüükhen referred to unmarried Mongol girls and women who were single. Although Mongol girls needed their father's permission to marry, Mongol language did not have the concept or term for virginity and Mongol girls could freely have extramarial sex before marriage with whoever they wanted. Buddhist monks and Han Chinese merchants (with 100,000 Han Chinese males in Outer Mongolia in 1918) were the main clients of Mongol prostitutes.<ref>{{cite report |author=Office Français de Protection des Réfugiés et Apatrides |date=12 mai 2020 |title=MONGOLIE Les femmes victimes de la traite et de l'exploitation sexuelle

|url=https://www.ofpra.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/ofpra_flora/2005_mng_traite_et_exploitation_sexuelle.pdf |publisher=Office Français de Protection des Réfugiés et Apatrides |page= 8}}</ref> 100,000 Han Chinese males lived in Outer Mongolia during its occupation in 1918-1919 in Uliastai, Hovd and the capital Ulaanbaatar and there wer emany single Mongol women since 44.5% of Outer Mongol men (105,577) were Buddhist Lamas, so the Mongol hüükhen women engaged in temporary sexual relations with the Han Chinese males.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Terbish |first1=Baasanjav |date= January 2013 |title= |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270530591_Mongolian_Sexuality_A_Short_History_of_the_Flirtation_of_Power_with_Sex|journal= Inner Asia |volume= 15|issue= 2|pages= 243-271|doi=10.1163/22105018-90000069}}</ref>

While the Qing had a ban on intermarriage in Gansu it was not enforced during the Qing and it was formally ended during the Republic of China.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Theaker |first= Hannah |date= 2022|title= Old Rebellions, New Minorities: Ma Family Leaders and Debates Over Communal Representation Following the Xinhai Rebellion, 1911 |url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/23801883.2021.1939503|journal=Global Intellectual History |volume=7 |issue=6 |page=1025 |doi= 10.1080/23801883.2021.1939503}</ref> A Han Chinese man was married to a Mongol woman Gansu in the 1890s and was encountered by a western missionary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rijnhart |first=Susie Carson|date=1901 |title=With the Tibetans in tent and temple; narrative of four years' residence on the Tibetan border, and of a journey into the far interior |url=https://archive.org/details/withtibetansinte01rijn/page/72/mode/1up |publisher= F. H. Revell company|page=72 }}</ref>

Han Chinese men accompnaied Manchu princesses as servants to Inner Mongolia and often were Mongolized after settling down, donating to the Great Shabi (Jebtsundamba Khutugtu's estate) and marrying Mongol women.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Tsai |first= Wei-chieh|date=June 2017 |title=MONGOLIZATION OF HAN CHINESE AND MANCHU SETTLERS

IN QING MONGOLIA, 1700–1911 |type=Submitted to the faculty of the University Graduate School in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University |chapter= |publisher=ProQuest |docket= |oclc= |pages-1-287 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815091000/http://elibrary.pcu.edu.ph:9000/digi/TD04/2017/TD0420170003354.pdf |archive-url=https://proquest.com/openview/5c6d78516e80433b02e24bbac4409096/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y |archive-date=2019|archive-url2=https://search.proquest.com/openview/5c6d78516e80433b02e24bbac4409096/1.pdf?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y|archive-date2=2019|access-date=}}</ref>

The Khatso in Yunnan are of Mongol descent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=BILIK |first1=NARAN |title=The Reconstruction of Mongolian Identity in the Pantheon of Polyphonic Images |journal=Inner Asia, |date=2003 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=177–192 |url=www.jstor.org/stable/23615302 |access-date=19 Apr. 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Xingmeng A cultural change that happened 800 years ago |url=https://www.colorfulchinatravel.com/locations/yunnan-south/xingmeng |website=Colorful China Travel: Travel South-West China}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://yunnanexploration.com/xingmeng-mongolian-village-in-tonghai-county-yuxi.html}}</ref>

<ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/linguistlist/status/1156010424145334272 |title= |last= |first= |date= |website=Twitter |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yunnanexploration.com/xingmeng-mongolian-village-in-tonghai-county-yuxi.html |title=Xingmeng Mongolian Village in Tonghai County, Yuxi |last= |first= |date= |website= Yunnan Exploration: Yunnan Tours, Yunnan Travel Agency|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.colorfulchinatravel.com/locations/yunnan-south/xingmeng |title=Xingmeng |last= |first= |date= |website= Colorful China Travel: Travel South-West China|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=BILIK |first1=NARAN |last2= |first2= |date=2003 |title=The Reconstruction of Mongolian Identity in the Pantheon of Polyphonic Images |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23615302?seq=1 |journal=Inner Asia |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=177–192 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref>

Before the Qing only the 6 tumens of the Chiggisids were called Mongol but under the Qing Lifan Yuan, the Horchin and Oirads were included under Mongol and brought under Qing rule. Only the Volga Kalmyks and Siberian Buryat Mongols remained outside of Qing rule.The Qing imposed a severe strict segregation system upon Mongols, dividing the Mongols even from each other. The Qing divided the Mongols in Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia into administrative units of banners (hoshuun) (unrelated to the Mongol banners of the [[Eight Banner]] system), leagues (chuulgan) and tribes (aimag) with guards stationed along the border of the administrative units in stations called karun. Uliastai, ningxia, Suiyuan and other administrative unit borders all had Manchu bannermen numbering 30-40 in each karun. The border guards would meet with other karun patrol guards at the midway point between two karuns, the oboo as they engaged in daily border patrols. <ref>{{cite book |last=Bulag |first= Uradyn E.|editor1-last=Billé|editor1-first=Franck |editor2-last=Delaplace|editor2-first= Grégory E.|editor3-last=Humphrey|editor3-first= Caroline |author-link= |date=2012 |title=Frontier Encounters: Knowledge and Practice at the Russian, Chinese and Mongolian Border |series=DOAB Directory of Open Access Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fA7ADxUa6vUC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=%22were+divided+into+81+banners.+There+were+also+numerous+other+banners+outside+the+two+large+entities%22&source=bl&ots=8wJQyRibOX&sig=ACfU3U3aONjpwSq6qmuHLY85pbf6fOH9Rg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiugNTn77byAhVPEVkFHc0_AxMQ6AF6BAgEEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher=Open Book Publishers |edition=illustrated |chapter=3. Rethinking Borders in Empire and Nation at the Foot of the Willow Palisade|page=40 |isbn=1906924872 |DOI= 10.11647/OBP.0026.03|archive-url=https://www.openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/FE/10_Chapter3.html|archive-date=2020 |archive-url2=https://www.academia.edu/4159064/Frontier_Encounters_Knowledge_and_Practice_at_the_Russian_Chinese_and_Mongolian_border|archive-date2=2019|archive-url3=https://library.oapen.org/download/?type=document&docid=633750|archive-date3=2019|archive-url4=https://books.openedition.org/obp/1527?lang=en|archive-date4=2018|archive-url5=https://www.academia.edu/5157588/Uradyn_E._Bulag_2012._Rethinking_Borders_in_Empire_and_Nation_at_the_Foot_of_the_Willow_Palisade_in_Franck_Bill%C3%A9_Caroline_Humphrey_and_Gr%C3%A9gory_Delaplace_eds._Frontier_Encounters_Knowledge_and_Practice_at_the_Russian_Chinese_and_Mongolian_Border._Cambridge_Open_Book_Publishers_pp._33-53|archive-date5=2017}}</ref> The Beijing based [[Lifan Yuan]] would sometimes send officials to inspect oboos and karuns and every month Manchu garrison generals checked then. The Manchus patrolling and segregating the Mongols were said to engage in "scissor walking" (khaich yavakh). Beijing would receive inspection reports from the guards who made daily records. The Qing segregation laws meant that unless permission was granted the banner borders were forbidden to be crossed by ordinary Mongol commoner subjects and Mongol banner, league and tribal nobles and they were even forbidden to marry Mongols from another banner. The Mongols were also forbidden to enter into the provinces of Han occupied inland China (neidi) south of the great wall and the Manchus would harshly punish Mongols who cross into neidi or into other Mongol banners. One statue said ''Originally, should there be border violations from Mongolia, a prince would be fined 10 horses, zasag, beile, beizi, and gong 7 horses, taiji five horses, and commoner, a cattle'' in the 1814 (Jiaqing 23rd year) Daqing Huidian Shili. The Qing then harshly jacked up and increased punishments for Mongol border violators, changing the law so that anyone who reported border violations would receive the property and the border violater himself if he was a commoner, while aristocratic nobility were slapped with a 10 times increase in fine by the 1820s. The Qing then increased the fine even more. The intention was to divide Mongols to maintain stability through the administrative system of banners which divided nomads, stopping them from gaining power by stopping the Mongol princes from engaging in conquest of other Mongol princes territories. This prevented Mongols from overthrowing the Qing and allying with each other and kept them as divided administrative units of banners so they could only by loyal to the Qing state (gurun).<ref>{{cite book |last=Bulag |first= Uradyn E.|editor1-last=Billé|editor1-first=Franck |editor2-last=Delaplace|editor2-first= Grégory E.|editor3-last=Humphrey|editor3-first= Caroline |author-link= |date=2012 |title=Frontier Encounters: Knowledge and Practice at the Russian, Chinese and Mongolian Border |series=DOAB Directory of Open Access Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fA7ADxUa6vUC&pg=PA41&lpg=PA41&dq=%22such+stringent+prohibition+of+trespassing+borders+was+to+mould+a+divided+unity+of+the+mongols+under+the+qing+gurun+or+state%22&source=bl&ots=8wJQyRkcMY&sig=ACfU3U0N-0LaQZH2OP7HZ9wWXIsn8PS5QQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjYq-nH97byAhUqn-AKHZy5BgwQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher=Open Book Publishers |edition=illustrated |chapter=3. Rethinking Borders in Empire and Nation at the Foot of the Willow Palisade|page=41 |isbn=1906924872 |DOI= 10.11647/OBP.0026.03|archive-url=https://www.openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/FE/10_Chapter3.html|archive-date=2020 |archive-url2=https://www.academia.edu/4159064/Frontier_Encounters_Knowledge_and_Practice_at_the_Russian_Chinese_and_Mongolian_border|archive-date2=2019|archive-url3=https://library.oapen.org/download/?type=document&docid=633750|archive-date3=2019|archive-url4=https://books.openedition.org/obp/1527?lang=en|archive-date4=2018|archive-url5=https://www.academia.edu/5157588/Uradyn_E._Bulag_2012._Rethinking_Borders_in_Empire_and_Nation_at_the_Foot_of_the_Willow_Palisade_in_Franck_Bill%C3%A9_Caroline_Humphrey_and_Gr%C3%A9gory_Delaplace_eds._Frontier_Encounters_Knowledge_and_Practice_at_the_Russian_Chinese_and_Mongolian_Border._Cambridge_Open_Book_Publishers_pp._33-53|archive-date5=2017}}</ref>

In order to go on pilgrimage to the Buddhist pilgrimage site [[Mount Wutai]] by crossing their banner administrative borders, Mongol pilgrims had to apply for special passports form the Qing government many of which are preserved in the Provincial Archives of Inner Mongolia and National Archives of Mongolia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Charleux |first=Isabelle |author-link= |date=2015 |title=Nomads on Pilgrimage: Mongols on Wutaishan (China), 1800-1940 |series=Brill's Inner Asian Library|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VzoLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=%22interesting+materials+documenting+pilgrimages+such+as+passports+for+groups+of+pilgrims+giving+them+authorization+to+cross+their%22&source=bl&ots=8V7ncYkvOy&sig=ACfU3U0ztaIUs9VJ8OsgUYV1gn56Qa4_cA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi865P39LbyAhVjQzABHY3XCyEQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=15 |isbn=9004297782|archive-url=https://ebin.pub/nomads-on-pilgrimage-mongols-on-wutaishan-china-1800-1940-9004297782-9789004297784.html|archive-date=2021|archive-url2=https://rs.zlibcdn2.com/book/16961420/7ca13a https://ur.b-ok2.org/book/16966911/d004d2 https://ur.b-ok.com/book/16961420/7ca13a https://in.b-ok.as/book/16966911/d004d2 https://ur.zlibcdn2.com/book/16961420/7ca13a https://ar.zlibcdn2.com/book/16961420/7ca13a https://es.b-ok.as/book/16966911/d004d2 https://th.b-ok.as/book/16966911/d004d2 https://am.zlibcdn2.com/book/16961420/7ca13a https://pl.b-ok.as/book/16966911/d004d2 https://my.b-ok.as/book/16966911/d004d2 https://ua.zlibcdn2.com/book/16961420/7ca13a}}</ref>

The [[Duke Yansheng]] Kong Xixue's ([[w:zh:孔希學|孔希學]]) second wife was a Mongol woman from the [[w:ca:Sulduz|Sulduz]] clan ([[w:ru:Сулдус|Сулдус]]) ({{zh|t=孫都思氏|s=孫都思氏|p=sūndōusī shì}}). Her father was a government official in Liaoyang province. Her surname transcribed into Chinese was sometimes just shortened to Sūn (孫) which gave the misleading impression that she was Han Chinese. His first wife was surnamed [[Dǒng]] and she gave birth to his son Kong Ne [[w:zh:孔訥|孔訥]] who became the next Duke Yansheng.<ref name=jp>{{cite web |title=《孔氏大宗支譜》 |url=https://www.familysearch.org/search/catalog/1089730 |website=[[FamilySearch]] |access-date=2020-11-15 |archive-date=2021-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110113003/https://www.familysearch.org/search/catalog/1089730 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=蕭|first=啟慶 |author-link= |date=2012 |title=九州四海風雅同：元代多族士人圈的形成與發展 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odRFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91&lpg=PA91&dq=%E5%AD%AB%E9%83%BD%E6%80%9D%E6%B0%8F&source=bl&ots=FECkkC_Sn5&sig=ACfU3U3FJ3djVZUjJK5o5XruodQ37CrE1g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwifsaqI_-XyAhXDmOAKHeWLDWgQ6AF6BAgREAM#v=onepage&q=%E5%AD%AB%E9%83%BD%E6%80%9D%E6%B0%8F&f=false |location= |publisher=聯經出版事業公司 |page=91 |isbn=9860327947}}</ref> The Suldus clan was part of the [[Taichiud]] tribe.<ref>{{cite book |last=虞|first=集 |date=1837 |title=虞文靖公道園全集: 四四卷, 詩八卷, 遺稾詩八卷, Volume 1, Issue 4|series=虞文靖公道園全集: 四四卷, 詩八卷, 遺稾詩八卷, 虞集 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5NAsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP537&lpg=PP537&dq=%E5%AD%AB%E9%83%BD%E6%80%9D%E6%B0%8F&source=bl&ots=CAvme4rDys&sig=ACfU3U2ZWpdfhqfHcjjHNCp85tB87gTQ8A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwifsaqI_-XyAhXDmOAKHeWLDWgQ6AF6BAgSEAM#v=onepage&q=%E5%AD%AB%E9%83%BD%E6%80%9D%E6%B0%8F&f=false |publisher=孫氏鵝溪村舍 |page= |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |title=虞集-道園學古錄 |url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Sibu_Congkan1439-%E8%99%9E%E9%9B%86-%E9%81%93%E5%9C%92%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%A4%E9%8C%84-12-05.djvu/44?action=edit }}</ref><ref>http://yourei.jp/%E9%83%BD%E6%80%9D%E6%B0%8F</ref>

Mongols have never used family or clan names in their personal names before the 20th century modern era. Obog clan names were not put together with first names. Many obog names were found in the Secret History of the Mongols. It was the Communist Mongolian People's Republic that forced commoner Mongols to used obog surnames in 1925, the Bogd Khaan regime and Qing never used surnames but only had titles and first names in their official documents. The Communist Interior Ministry at the orders of the Twenty-fifth Government Assembly said that every single Mongol regardless of age or sex should use an obog surname, using their traditional one if they had one but if they didn't have one, using a matronymic or patronymic from their previous ancestors like grand grandfathers, grandfathers, mothers and fathers or any random obog surname with a 2 word limit. Mongol historian Bulag stated that most Mongol commoners used matronymic and patronymics since most did not belong to any obog clan. Only the Borjigin ruling nobles had centuries old genealogies with thousands of names of their males listed. The Communist government attacked nobility and aristocracy so most Borjigins shed their Borjigin surnames and instead used matronymic and patronimic surnames. This led to a misconception that surnames were banned by the communists. Commoner Mongols who were not part of the ruling Borjigin clan nobility lacked a lineage system and clan names, so the Mongols were forced to use new clan names by their Manchu conquerors in the Qing dynasty. Many terms were made up to become obog clan names which were totally made up, in south Mongolia they numbered 233. Some of the names were "Achit Lamynkhan" (Achit Lama's people), Khyatad (Han Chinese) and Taijnar (princes).. The otog administrative unit ruled by a noble was conflated with the obog (obug) clan name under Qing rule since obogs were used administratively by the Qing. These otogs each had thousands of unrelated households under the rule of a noble and were not consanguineous at all. The household otog were hereditary at the commoner level meaning they could not leave unless the nobles swapped commoner households between their otog's. Mongol banners under the Qing used bag and sum and otog as administrative units. Contrary to popular misconception, Mongols in the early 20th century did not live in patrilineal clans at all, rather they lived in rapidly shifting groups of unrelatedfamilies gathered together in units called khoton which had 1 to 8 yurts (gers) at a time and they would break up and recombine frequently with other khotons. Over 56% of them were not linked by patrilineal lineage while only 41% were linked by patrilineal clans out of 100 khotons that A. D. Simukov saw.Wealth was a measure of coresidence since rich Khoton leaders had unrelated poor households numbering 2 or 3 under him to do work in his khoton. Each banner lord (khoshuu( had a sum (150 households) made out of bag (50 households) made out of arban (ten households). They were not based on patrilineal lineage or clan at all and were constantly shuffled around. Most of the households did not live with their relatives and only met for holidays like lunar New Year and their lineage was traced to up great grandparents sometimes and to grandparents most of the time. Both Inner Mongols and Khalkha Outer Mongol commoners general only knew 4 or 3 generations of ancestors and not further than that, in the 19th century. Historians and anthropologists tried to guess if Mongol commoners before that were ever organized into a patrilineal tribal and clan structure with lineages spanning multiple generations, some guessing that the Mongols lost this structure as long ago as the Yuan dynasty's end. Some tried to argue that the Mongols lost their tribes during the Yuan but reconstituted them after the Yuan ended and that other ethnicities like Manchus had a tribal clan structure judging from Shirokogoroff's ethnography of Manchus in 1915 with the hala and mukun clan names. However, this was also misleading, since the Manchu mukun clans were not based on blood lineage but were made out of totally unrelated people and were fluid, shifting as mukun broke up and reformed, before the foundation of the Qing as shown by Pamela Crossley. Mukun meant village or a moving group of herders or hunters, not a related group of clansmen. Manchu mukun were made out of unrelated people before the Qing, and when the Qing was founded, the Qing forced mukun clans to accepted totally unrelated strangers who lacked a mukun clan themselves. Hereditary lords ruled decimal administrative units of Meng-an mou-ke under the Jurchens in the 12th century Jin dynasty. Officers were hereditary and all males had to provide military serive just like the Eigh tbanners. Manchu mukun had tatan (sub units) like the pu-li-yan (50 households) of the mou-ke, and each Meng-an or Minggan (1,000) had 7-10 mou-le and were like a niru unit of a banner and mouke and mukun shared the same etymology. Non Jurchens like Khitan and Han Chinese were incorporated into Mengan Mouke. They integrated civil and military into the Mengan Mouke units. Multiple founder ancestors were attributed to Manchu mukun clans, instead of a single founding ancestor according to later genealogies written for Manchu mukun. The only aspect of Manchu mukun that fit the definition of a clan was that they were assigned unique names, otherwise they were made out of unrelated peoples and simple a hereditary corporate group with multiple lineages. Most of the hala clan names were toponyms and the Qing began writing and making works on Eight Banner Manchu genealogies for administrative purposes like the 1799 Manchu banner history and the 1745 Yongzheng emperor's Baqi Manzhou Shizu Tongpu (Comprehensive Genealogies of the Clans and Lineages of the Eight Banner Manchus). The Manchu mukun and Jurchen mengan mouke were both not kidship based clans but rather administrative divisions, not stemming from a person but named form a typonym and having multiple unrelated people in them and having hereditary lords over them. The Qing also created Daur (Dagur) clan groups artificially which were not made out of related people but were only territorial groupings with hala clan names coming from rivers. They only appeared to be descent groups from the outside since they had hereditary membership.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sneath |first=David |author-link=University Assistant Lecturer in the Department of Social Anthropology and Assistant Director of the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit David Sneath, David (Director Sneath, Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit University of Cambridge) |date=2007 |edition=illustrated|title=The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, & Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jgLICgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109&dq=%22the+exception,+of+course,+were+the+members+of+the+borjigin+nobility%22&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=%22the+exception,+of+course,+were+the+members+of+the+borjigin+nobility%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=94, 95, 96, 97 |isbn=0231140541}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sneath |first=David |author-link=University Assistant Lecturer in the Department of Social Anthropology and Assistant Director of the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit David Sneath, David (Director Sneath, Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit University of Cambridge) |date=2007 |edition=illustrated|title=The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, & Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWMaAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT109&dq=%22the+exception,+of+course,+were+the+members+of+the+borjigin+nobility%22&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20exception%2C%20of%20course%2C%20were%20the%20members%20of%20the%20borjigin%20nobility%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100 |isbn=0231140541}}</ref> Mongol commoner subjects like albat and hamjlaga were often traded and sold by Mongol nobles, which the Manchus had to ban them from doing. In the 17th century many important Buddhist clerics received commoners from Mongol nobles. Mongol society was divided into Buddhist monastics, commoners and nobles. Four groups made up commoners. The Commoner and noble slaves (hüvüüd and bool), serfs, subjects and servants of monasteries, and the sumyn ard or albu (the lord's imperial subjects, and the har'ya or hamjlaga, the officials and nobles servants. Commoners could be punished by death, enslavement and flogging while livestock was fined from nobles if they became criminals. Commoners had corvee labor and tax owed to lords while nobles had servants and did not pay corvée labour or tax. Noble were not in administrative posts but ruled.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sneath |first=David |editor1-last=Rio|editor1-first=Knut Mikjel |editor2-last=Smedal|editor2-first=Olaf H. |author-link= |date=2009 |title=Hierarchy: Persistence and Transformation in Social Formations |series=

Berghahn Series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0gxBuqf9toC&pg=PA168#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher= Berghahn Books,|page=168 |isbn=|1845454936|chapter=CHAPTER 5 The Headless State in Inner Asia : Reconsidering Kinship Society and the Discourse of Tribalism }}</ref> Contrary to accounts by westerners in Mongolia, the Mongols were not free to go about the steppe as they pleased but were rather divided into administrative units by the Qing and were ruled by Qing officials, Buddhist monasteries or Mongol nobles. A Jasag noyan ruled khoshuu (administrative banners). Mongol nobles had 8 classes and the standard rank was prince (taiji). There were 10 (arban) households in fifty households (bags) in 150 households (sumun) of commoner subjects under Princes of the khoshuu. They had livestock, personal retainers, officers, treasury, administrative staff under the prince of the khoshuu. Pastoral herds were regulated by district under the monastery or lord who controlled pastureland. Poo herders were forced to labour for their betters since they had no livestock while thousands of livestock were owned by monasteries and rich aristocrats. Mongol nobles had regional assembles (chigulgan) with rotating leaders through which policy was implemented. They were multilingual and literate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sneath |first=David |author-link=University Assistant Lecturer in the Department of Social Anthropology and Assistant Director of the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit David Sneath, David (Director Sneath, Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit University of Cambridge) |date=2007 |edition=illustrated|title=The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, & Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jgLICgAAQBAJ&pg=PT82&dq=%22by+buddhist+monasteries+or+qing+officials+with+similar+powers%22&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=%22by%20buddhist%20monasteries%20or%20qing%20officials%20with%20similar%20powers%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=68 |isbn=0231140541|chapter=3 The Imaginary Tribe : Colonial and Imperial Orders and the Peripheral Polity}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sneath |first=David |author-link=University Assistant Lecturer in the Department of Social Anthropology and Assistant Director of the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit David Sneath, David (Director Sneath, Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit University of Cambridge) |date=2007 |edition=illustrated|title=The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, & Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWMaAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT82&dq=%22by+buddhist+monasteries+or+qing+officials+with+similar+powers%22&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=%22by%20buddhist%20monasteries%20or%20qing%20officials%20with%20similar%20powers%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=68 |isbn=0231140541|chapter=3 The Imaginary Tribe : Colonial and Imperial Orders and the Peripheral Polity}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sneath |first=David |editor1-last=Rio|editor1-first=Knut Mikjel |editor2-last=Smedal|editor2-first=Olaf H. |author-link= |date=2009 |title=Hierarchy: Persistence and Transformation in Social Formations |series=Berghahn Series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0gxBuqf9toC&pg=PA161&dq=%22by+buddhist+monasteries+or+qing+officials+with+similar+powers%22&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=%22by%20buddhist%20monasteries%20or%20qing%20officials%20with%20similar%20powers%22&f=false |location= |publisher= Berghahn Books,|page=161 |isbn=|1845454936|chapter=CHAPTER 5 The Headless State in Inner Asia : Reconsidering Kinship Society and the Discourse of Tribalism }}</ref> https://cup.columbia.edu/book/the-headless-state/9780231140546 https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/snea14054

Mongol women are forced into prostitution by poverty and work in mining zones catering to miners where the rate of HIV is rising. One 22 year old Mongol woman Gaamaa was trafficked into prostitution in Mongolia and then in multiple cities in China before she was rescued by a client in China. Gaama said that if she hadn't been trafficked into China she would never have been rescued.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ladly |first=Meghan Davidson |date= 19 February 2019 |title= Mongolia's prostitution zones, where women trade sex for fuel in sub-zero temperatures|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/women-and-girls/mongolias-prostitution-zones-women-trade-sex-fuel-sub-zero-temperatures/ |work= The Telegraph}}</ref> Mongol women suffer from sexual violence at the hands of Mongol men, both ordinary Mongol women and Mongol prostitutes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lege |first1= Ranson Paul |last2=Munkhtuvshin |first2= Munkhnaran |date=February 2023 |title=Improving the Conditions of Sex Workers in Mongolia:A Comparative Study of Legalized Prostitution |url=https://cale.law.nagoya-u.ac.jp/wp/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/alb8_04_Lege-and-Munkhnaran-Munkhtuvshin.pdf |journal= Nagoya University Asian Law Bulletin|volume=8 |pages=69-78 }}

</ref>

The Ming dynasty used Mongol soldiers against ethnic Yao rebels.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Twitchett |first1=Denis Crispin |editor1-last=Twitchett |editor1-first=Denis Crispin |editor2-last=Fairbank |editor2-first=John King |title=The Cambridge History of China |date=1978 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521243327 |page=379 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tyhT9SZRLS8C&pg=PA379&lpg=PA379&dq=%22thirty+thousand+soldiers,+including+one+thousand+mongol+cavalry+archers%22&source=bl&ots=7QGAIqENeW&sig=ACfU3U2Ia1DKBDDJ8V7xkVJtjIEHd7P3sw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiBo6uKjonwAhXshOAKHT1zD2AQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22thirty%20thousand%20soldiers%2C%20including%20one%20thousand%20mongol%20cavalry%20archers%22&f=false |ISSN=0521214475 |chapter=CHAPTER 6 THE Ch'ENG -HUA AND HUNG-CHIH REIGNS, 1465-1505 |archive-url=https://www.academia.edu/44170389/THE_CAMBRIDGE_HISTORY_OF_CHINA_vol_7|archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Connolly |editor1-first=Peter |editor2-last=Gillingham |editor2-first=John |editor3-last=Lazenby |editor3-first=John |title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1135936811 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LUoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT210&lpg=PT210&dq=%22Imperial+commander+Han+Yong+was+sent+against+them+with+30,000+northern+troops,+including%22&source=bl&ots=TuwZbsQjQn&sig=ACfU3U3rpQaOJxkNYEwZC0mQNi_GD8eQjg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjDx8f6jonwAhVNSN8KHfDXCVoQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=%22Imperial%20commander%20Han%20Yong%20was%20sent%20against%20them%20with%2030%2C000%20northern%20troops%2C%20including%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mote |first1=Frederick W. |editor=Harvard University Press |title=Imperial China, 900-1800 |date=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0674445155 |page=708 |edition=2, illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1M5wAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Chinese+troops+had+never+before+penetrated+the+Yao+strongholds+;+in+this+all+-+out+campaign+they+were+aided+by+Mongol+archers+from+the+north+and+local+Zhuang+fighters+called+%E2%80%9C+wolf+soldiers+%E2%80%9D+(+langbing+)+;+both+were+feared+for+their+ferocity+.%22&dq=%22Chinese+troops+had+never+before+penetrated+the+Yao+strongholds+;+in+this+all+-+out+campaign+they+were+aided+by+Mongol+archers+from+the+north+and+local+Zhuang+fighters+called+%E2%80%9C+wolf+soldiers+%E2%80%9D+(+langbing+)+;+both+were+feared+for+their+ferocity+.%22&hl=en&newbks=1}}</ref>

Chinese men bought North Korean refugee women as sex slaves.<ref>{{cite news |last=Palmer |first=James |date=Tuesday 19 November 2002 |title=Starving fugitives 'sold as sex slaves' to Chinese men |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/starving-fugitives-sold-as-sex-slaves-to-chinese-men-128400.html |work= The Independent|location= |access-date=}}</ref>

Dzungar Baraba Tatars<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=Allen J |last2= |first2= |date=2000 |title=Varieties of Islamization in Inner Asia: The Case of the Baraba Tatars, 1740-1917 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20171182?read-now=1&seq=10#metadata_info_tab_contents |journal= Cahiers Du Monde Russe|volume=41 |issue=2/3 |pages=245–262 |page=254|doi= |access-date=}}</ref>

The Rasulids who ruled Yemen were Turkmen but they created a fake genealogy claiming descent from the Arab Ghassanid tribe and claimed their Arab ancestor fled to the land of the Turkmen during the Rashidun caliphate and assimilated into them.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Golden |editor1-first=Peter |editor12-last= Halasi-Kun|editor2-first=Tibor |date=2021 |title=The King's Dictionary: The Rasūlid Hexaglot: Fourteenth Century Vocabularies in Arabic, Persian, Turkic, Greek, Armenian and Mongol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LsxKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=%22but+had+emigrated+to+Byzantine+territories+and+thence+to+the+T%C3%BCrkmen+lands+.+Here+,+amidst%22&source=bl&ots=ItBFpQb3mD&sig=ACfU3U3K00br_zr4u92vOc8g5SbbvHOE-g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjlrp62_J6DAxVoRPEDHbnbAm4Q6AF6BAgJEAM |publisher=BRILL |page=22 |isbn=9004492585}}</ref>

Mamluk Circassians created false genealogies claiming that Circassians descended from Arab tribes like the Quraysh tribe or Ghassanid tribe who had migrated to the lands of Circassians.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Iliushina |first= Milana Yu. |date= 2014|title=THE ORIGINS OF THE CIRCASSIAN MAMLUKS: A SUBJECT OF MYTH-MAKING |url=https://hse.ru/data/2014/09/24/1315802474/64HUM2014.pdf |journal=BASIC RESEARCH PROGRAM WORKING PAPERS|publisher=National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE). |pages=1-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Iliushina |first= Milana Yu. |date= 2014|title=THE ORIGINS OF THE CIRCASSIAN MAMLUKS: A SUBJECT OF MYTH-MAKING |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500695 |journal=BASIC RESEARCH PROGRAM WORKING PAPERS|publisher=National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE). |pages=1-13 }}</ref>

Mongol soldiers in stationed in China during the Mongol empire and Yuan dynasty were forced to sell their own children (boys and girls) as slaves to Han Chinese and Hui due to debt bondage after taking loans from them. <ref>{{cite book |last=Endicott |first= Elizabeth |date=2021 |title=Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qyJXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA470&dq=mongol+huihui+slaves&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi9_-Di0eODAxXRR_EDHRv3AQoQ6AF6BAgHEAI |publisher=BRILL |chapter=The Mongols and China: Cultural Contacts and the Changing Nature of Pastoral Nomadism (Twelfth to Early Twentieth Centuries) | page=470|isbn=9047406338}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wyatt |first= Don J. |date=2021 |title=Slavery and Bonded Labor in Asia, 1250–1900 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2stKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121&dq=mongol+huihui+slaves&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi9_-Di0eODAxXRR_EDHRv3AQoQ6AF6BAgGEAI |publisher=BRILL |chapter=Chapter 4 Slavery and the Mongol Empire |page= 121|isbn=9004469656}}</ref>

Han Chinese killed the Yuan dynasty Muslim finance minister Ahmad Fanakati. The Mongols relocated Muslim slaves and prisoners from West Asia to the former Tangut kingdom in China, Rashid al-din claimed that the Tangut region's cities were majority Muslims but Marco Polo who visited Ganzhou and Shazhou cities said hey were a minority.<ref>{{cite book |last= Jackson|first= Peter|date= 2017|title= The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICGMDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA398&dq=mongol+huihui+slaves&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi9_-Di0eODAxXRR_EDHRv3AQoQ6AF6BAgJEAI |publisher=Yale University Press |page=398 |isbn=030012533X}}</ref>

Han Chinese Xiang Army soldiers took already married Muslim women was wives in northwest including in Gansu and Xinjiang. The Han soldiers took both Hui wives of former Hui rebels and took Uyghur wives of Andijani soldiers of Yaqub Beg that they killed, and Han soldiers also bought Uyghur women and girls from Hui traffickers who sold them. South Asian merchants and Han Chinese also took Uyghur Musulman women as payment for debt when Uyghurs could not pay loans.<ref>{{cite book |last= Schluessel|first=Eric |date=2020 |title=Land of Strangers: The Civilizing Project in Qing Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1jZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT87&dq=liu+jintang+concubine&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwidya67oOWDAxVRR_EDHYPXABoQ6AF6BAgLEAI |location= |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=023155222X}}</ref>

There was no united Hui leadership or goals in Gansu and Shaanxi which different factions of Muslims in rebellion or remaining neutral or with the state. Most of the Hui presence in Shaanxi was ended by the war.<ref> {{cite book |last=Lipman |first=Jonathan N. |date=1990 |title= Violence in China: Essays in Culture and Counterculture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShGfcJiA-oAC&pg=PA72&dq=zuo+zongtang+genocidal+pacification&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjc49XerOWDAxUR3gIHHc7XBIYQ6AF6BAgGEAI |publisher=SUNY Press |edition=illustrated |page= 72|isbn=0791401138|chapter=3 Ethnic Violence in Modern China: Hans and Huis in Gansu, 1781-1929}}</ref>

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Era_of_Northern_Domination&action=edit&section=7

Vietnamese women and men were banned from having short hair, banned from cutting their hair by the Ming official Bang Dao Tuong.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Nguyen |editor1-first=Tai Thu |editor2-last=Hoàng |editor2-first=Thị Thơ |author-link= |date=2008 |title=The History of Buddhism in Vietnam |series=Cultural heritage and contemporary change: South East Asia|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=tUN8tC0ftJcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=castration+le+thanh+vietnam&hl=fr&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjnofHI2vLyAhXZF1kFHeKMAwIQ6AF6BAgEEAI |location= |publisher=CRVP |page=170 |isbn=1565180984}}</ref>https://books.google.fr/books?id=tUN8tC0ftJcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=castration+le+code+vietnam&hl=fr&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi79LDFofPyAhXkc98KHRhWCPkQ6AF6BAgFEAI

<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=7fcFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA314&lpg=PA314&dq=%22for+examples+of+korean+wives+and+consorts+of+high-ranking%22&source=bl&ots=Okq5ksxkHV&sig=ACfU3U1_EgN0yBiA91T5D7nUU_uaw1NkIw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjfm5PTqc_7AhU-_bsIHUQhDIMQ6AF6BAgGEAM https://www.coursehero.com/file/109673076/Robinson-Koryo-Women-and-Great-Yuan-Uluspdf/ https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/9781684170524/BP000012.xml https://dokumen.pub/empires-twilight-northeast-asia-under-the-mongols-1nbsped-0674036085-9780674036086.html https://vdoc.pub/documents/empires-twilight-northeast-asia-under-the-mongols-2i7l4ccfsq10</ref>

Cham Balinese DNA <ref>He, Jun-Dong & Peng, Min-Sheng & Quang, Huy & Dang, Khoa & Trieu, An & Wu, Shi-Fang & Jin, Jie-Qiong & Murphy, Robert & Yao, Yong-Gang & Zhang, Ya-Ping. (2012). [https://www.researchgate.net/figure/NRY-and-mtDNA-haplogroup-profiles-for-the-Chams-and-the-Kinhs-For-mtDNA-haplogroups-M_fig7_224959093 Patrilineal Perspective on the Austronesian Diffusion in Mainland Southeast Asia.] PloS one. 7. e36437. 10.1371/journal.pone.0036437.</ref> Indonesia Balinese.<ref>Karafet, Tatiana & Lansing, John & Redd, Alan & Reznikova, Svetlana & Watkins, Joseph & Surata, Sang & Arthawiguna, WA & Mayer, Laura & Bamshad, Michael & Jorde, Lynn & Hammer, Michael. (2005). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645574_Balinese_Y-Chromosome_Perspective_on_the_Peopling_of_Indonesia_Genetic_Contributions_from_Pre-Neolithic_Hunter-Gatherers_Austronesian_Farmers_and_Indian_Traders Balinese Y-Chromosome Perspective on the Peopling of Indonesia: Genetic Contributions from Pre-Neolithic Hunter-Gatherers, Austronesian Farmers, and Indian Traders. Human biology.] 77. [ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16114819/ 93-114]. 10.1353/hub.2005.0030.</ref>

<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=Allen J. |title=Varieties of Islamization in Inner Asia: The Case of the Baraba Tatars, 1740-1917 |journal=Cahiers Du Monde Russe |date=2000 |volume=41 |issue=2/3 |page=254 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20171182?read-now=1&seq=10#metadata_info_tab_contents |access-date=19 Apr. 2021}}</ref>

<ref>{{cite book |last1=Drompp |first1=Michael |editor1-last=Drompp |editor1-first=Michael |url=https://brill.com/view/title/11348 |title=Tang China and the Collapse of the Uighur Empire : A Documentary History |date=15 Nov 2004 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-14129-2 |volume=13 |series=Brill's Inner Asian Library}}</ref>

An article from the New York Times in 1919 reported on Outer Mongol princes who urged Beijing to intervene and restore Outer Mongolia as a region of the Republic of China so the Outer Mongol princes could receive stipends.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=Oct. 31, 1919 |title=Outer Mongolia, Tired of Autonomy, Asks China to Pay Her Princes and Take Her Back |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/10/31/archives/outer-mongolia-tired-of-autonomy-asks-china-to-pay-her-princes-and.html |work=The New York Times|location= |access-date=}}</ref> James Palmer also wrote in his biography on Baron Ungern that some Outer Mongol princes invited the warlord government in Beijing to intervene to get rid of the theocratic government of the Bogd Khan.<ref>{{cite book |last= Palmer|first=James |edition=large print |author-link= |date=2011 |title=The Bloody White Baron: El Sicario|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7grTjKNXOsoC&pg=PA180#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher=ReadHowYouWant.com |page=180 |isbn=1459614534}}</ref>

In 1592 Vietnamese [[Mạc dynasty]] emperor [[Mạc Mậu Hợp]] was executed by slicing at [[Hanoi Railway Station|Thảo Tân margin]] ([[Hanoi|Đông Đô]]) by his enemy [[Trịnh Tùng]] for a period of 3 days.

The Qing sentenced Miao rebels to death by slicing during the [[Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=SUTTON |first1=DONALD S. |title=Ethnic Revolt in the Qing Empire: The ‘Miao Uprising’ of 1795-1797 Reexamined |journal=Asia Major |date=2003 |volume=16 |issue=2 |page=121 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41649879?seq=17#metadata_info_tab_contents |access-date=16 Apr. 2021|archive-url=https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1477kZcITZn.pdf|archive-date=16 Apr. 2021}}</ref>

The Qing sentenced two Turkic Muslims (Uyghurs) to death by public quartering (slicing), their names were Ismāʿīl and Adir and they were executed for murdering the entire family of [[Xibe]] (Sibo) [[bannerman]] Dasanbu and killing Dasanbu. Dasanbu's sister in law, wife and mother were killed with him. Adir's original master was another Xibe bannerman, Dasangga who had passed away. Adir was made a slave since his father fought for [[Jahangir Khoja]] in the [[Āfāqī_Khoja_Holy_War#Military_expeditions_with_the_support_of_Khoqand|Afaq Khoja holy war]] and was executed for it. Yangi Hisar was Adir's hometown. Ismāʿīl was doing forced labor in Ili after being arrested for stealing and he came from Kashgar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=NEWBY |first1=L. J. |title=Bondage on Qing China's Northwestern Frontier. |journal=Modern Asian Studies |date=2013 |volume=47 |issue=3 |page=987 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172?seq=20#metadata_info_tab_contents |access-date=16 Apr. 2021}}</ref>

Two Uyghurs named Isma'il and Adir were sentenced to be sliced to death in public in 1841 after killing their Xibo master Dasanbu while they were sentenced to penal slavery in Ili. Isma'il was a thief and Adir was the son of a rebel with Jahangir Khoja in 1848. Adir was originally the slave of a Xibe named Dasangga before Dasanbu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=NEWBY |first= L. J.|date= 2013|title= Bondage on Qing China’s Northwestern Frontier|url=https://jstor.org/stable/24494172?read-now=1&seq=20#page_scan_tab_contents |journal= Modern Asian Studies|volume=47 |issue=3 |pages= |doi= |access-date=}}</ref>

Jurchen (Manchu) men like Yishiha served as eunuchs for Ming dynasty Han Chinese emperors.

<ref>{{cite journal |last1=TSAI |first1=SHIH-SHAN HENRY |title=THE DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF MING EUNUCHS |journal=Journal of Asian History |date=1991 |volume=25 |issue=2 |page=129 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41930824?seq=9#metadata_info_tab_contents |access-date=16 Apr. 2021.}}</ref>

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