https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit
The four category classification system with Semu was not important factor for hiring government employees, rather it appears to be related to quotas for the imperial exams.<ref>Bol, Peter K. 2011. Review of The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, by Timothy Brook. Journal of Song- Yuan Studies 41:405-410. https://academia.edu/68391361/The_Troubled_Empire_China_in_the_Yuan_and_Ming_Dynasties?rhid=27949414949&swp=rr-rw-wc-23276848</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire&action=edit§ion=2
1,747,000 were massacred in 1220 at Nishapur.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Fisher |editor1-first=William Bayne |editor2-last=Boyle |editor2-first=J. A. |editor3-last=Boyle |editor3-first=John Andrew |editor4-last=Gershevitch |editor4-first=Ilya |editor5-last=Yarshater |editor5-first=Ehsan |editor6-last=Frye |editor6-first=Richard Nelson |editor7-last=Avery |editor7-first=Peter |editor8-last=Jackson |editor8-first=Peter |title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5 |date=1968 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=052106936X |page=485 |edition=illustrated, reprint, reissue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA485&lpg=PA485&dq=%22conquest+was+a+fall+in+population,+mostly+among+the+working+people+in+town+and+country,+due+to+massacre+and+abduction+into+slavery+and+captivity,+the+flight+of+the+remaining+population,+and+the+desertion+of+areas+that+had+been+thickly+populated+at+an+earlier+date.+Arab+and+Persian+sources,+speaking+of+the+universal+slaughter+in+a+series+of+towns+and+districts,+give+figures+which+stun+the+imagination%22&source=bl&ots=1McldMPl_V&sig=ACfU3U3LUhz9EUEJGl8ZnfCyYWg_94mY6A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjOp-fOyKnvAhVCTd8KHdSvD3EQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=%22conquest%20was%20a%20fall%20in%20population%2C%20mostly%20among%20the%20working%20people%20in%20town%20and%20country%2C%20due%20to%20massacre%20and%20abduction%20into%20slavery%20and%20captivity%2C%20the%20flight%20of%20the%20remaining%20population%2C%20and%20the%20desertion%20of%20areas%20that%20had%20been%20thickly%20populated%20at%20an%20earlier%20date.%20Arab%20and%20Persian%20sources%2C%20speaking%20of%20the%20universal%20slaughter%20in%20a%20series%20of%20towns%20and%20districts%2C%20give%20figures%20which%20stun%20the%20imagination%22&f=false |chapter=CHAPTER 6 - THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION OF IRAN UNDER THE ĪL-KHĀNS. |series=Cambridge histories online, Cambridge history ebook collection|volume=Volume 5 of The Cambridge History of Iran 7 Volume Set in 8 Pieces}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.howstuffworks.com/history-vs-myth/genghis-khan-murder.htm#pt1 |title=Did Genghis Khan really kill 1,748,000 people in one hour?|last=Clark |first=Josh |date= |website= HowStuffWorks |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>
The Mongols continued to attack cities in Iran after the initial invasion of 1220. The Mongols slaughtered the people of Isfahan after capturing it in 1235-6. The city was burned with fire and the Mongols looted property, cut open pregnant women's' bellies and seized women as captives. A dispute between Hanafis and Shafi'is in Isfahan was happening at the same time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Woods |first1=John E. |last2= |first2= |date=1977 |title=A Note on the Mongol Capture of Iṣfahān |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/544126?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=50, 51 |doi= |access-date= Mar. 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/bdaiwi_historia/status/1167886310641586176 |title= |last=Bdaiwi |first=Ahab |date=Aug 31, 2019 |website= |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>
The Persian woman [[Fatima (d. 1246)]] was taken captive by the Mongols from [[Mashhad]] in Iran and she became a favorite of [[Töregene Khatun]] at the Mongol court.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weatherford |first=Jack |author-link= |date=2005 |edition=illustrated, reprint |title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56_DNcoTnSAC&pg=PA161#v=onepage&q&f=false |location=https://www.rulit.me/books/genghis-khan-and-the-making-of-the-modern-world-read-389746-54.html |page=161|archiveurl=https://erenow.net/modern/genghiskhan/8.php |archivedate=2020 |publisher= Three Rivers Press |chapter=7 Warring Queens |isbn=0609809644}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=17
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miscegenation&action=edit§ion=31
Korean women were mass raped by Japanese soldiers in the Imjin war. Korean women were also married off to Semu Huihui men, forming clans like the Deoksu Jang clan in Korea.
Western race scientists claimed that mentally retarded white children born to white mothers had ancestors who were raped by Mongol warriors in 19th century race science.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weatherford |first=Jack |author-link= |date=2005 |edition=illustrated, reprint |title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56_DNcoTnSAC&pg=PR26&lpg=PR26&dq=%22when+doctors+wanted+to+account+for+why+mothers+of+the+superior+white+race+could+give+birth+to+retarded+children%22&source=bl&ots=hsiTevqKZJ&sig=ACfU3U2_OS1Yoir-HT1RdAb0UgvdMDTbLg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiEmfHv2qnvAhXPTd8KHXoyDbMQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=%22when%20doctors%20wanted%20to%20account%20for%20why%20mothers%20of%20the%20superior%20white%20race%20could%20give%20birth%20to%20retarded%20children%22&f=false |page=xxvi |publisher= Three Rivers Press|isbn=0609809644}}</ref><ref> http://www.beirutandbeyond.co.uk/here-cometh-the-mongols/</ref><ref> https://erenow.net/modern/genghiskhan/1.php</ref><ref> https://www.homeworkmarket.com/sites/default/files/qx/17/02/24/02/jack_weatherford-genghis_khan_and_the_making_of_the_modern_world-broadway_2005.pdf</ref><ref> http://www.academia.edu/35692118/Genghis_khan_and_the_making_of_the_modern_jack_weatherford</ref><ref> https://issuu.com/magiimaa/docs/-oceanofpdf.com-genghis_khan_and_th</ref>
To explain down syndrome, Dr. Down's son claimed white retarded children were descended from a form of Mongol. Western scientists claimed that white women in Europe were raped by Mongols, Avars and Huns leaving Mongoloid genes inside the white population so white European women who gave birth to retarded children resembled Mongoloid Asians in their physical looks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weatherford |first=Jack |author-link= |date=2005 |edition=illustrated, reprint |title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56_DNcoTnSAC&pg=PA258&lpg=PA258&dq=%22Avars+,+and+Mongols+had+left+their+genetic+impact+on+Europe+when+they+supposedly+raped+the+white+women%22&source=bl&ots=hsiTevqK3K&sig=ACfU3U3KfjTieoc1b5ON2o2mReXF9rjpTQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6yIqN26nvAhVCSN8KHaVyBakQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw|page=258|publisher= Three Rivers Press|isbn=0609809644}}</ref><ref>https://www.homeworkmarket.com/sites/default/files/qx/17/02/24/02/jack_weatherford-genghis_khan_and_the_making_of_the_modern_world-broadway_2005.pdf</ref><ref>https://erenow.net/modern/genghiskhan/11.php</ref>
European whites occasionally have [[Mongolian spot]] which indicate ancestry from Mongols raping European women.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ropers|first1=Richard H.|last2=Pence |first2=Dan J.|author-link= |date=1995|edition=illustrated|title=American Prejudice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cjt9Rsk8eLMC&dq=%22Admixture+also+occurs+when+armies+enter+and+dominate+a+state+or+country+.+After+the+Germans+invaded+adjacent+countries+%2C++some+European+women+were+impregnated+by+rape+or+an+affair+.+One+European+woman+in+a+classroom+assured+students+that+women+deliberately+aborted+the+fetuses+.+She+also+claimed+the+same+for+European+women+who+were+impregnated+by+the+invading+Mongol+armies+%2C+which+reached+the+gates+of+Paris%22&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22Admixture+also+occurs+when+armies+enter+and+dominate+a+state+or+country+.+After+the+Germans+invaded+adjacent+countries+%2C++some+European+women+were+impregnated+by+rape+or+an+affair+.+One+European+woman+in+a+classroom+assured+students+that+women+deliberately+aborted+the+fetuses+.+She+also+claimed+the+same+for+European+women+who+were+impregnated+by+the+invading+Mongol+armies+%2C+which+reached+the+gates+of+Paris%22+%22but+the+relative+frequency+of+Mongoloid+spots%2C+a+small+cluster+of+melanin+at+the+base+of+the+spine%2C+among+some+Europeans+is+evidence+that+not+all+women+killed+the+children+conceived+with+Mongols.%22|page=xi|publisher=Basic Books |isbn=0306449463}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wei&action=edit§ion=7
===Governance===
Local society in northern China was not governed by civil bureaucrats but by military clientage during the reign of the Northern Wei Xianbei emperors, with the local Han Chinese aristocratic families jointly ruling and controlling power with them. The Han Chinese aristocrat families ruled over their private fiefs (home jurisdictions) with large military authority and civil authority as entrusted to them by the Xianbei emperor. The Xianbei emperor also turned their own Xianbei nomad warriors into a hereditary military caste and extinguish their tribal loyalties. To the consternation of the Xianbei nobles, Han Chinese aristocrats started to be appointed to government positions by the Northern Wei emperors when the Central Plains population regrew in the middle of the 5th century. Han Chinese commoners started pledging their allegiance as buqu (部曲) (armed retainers) to elite Han Chinese aristocratic magnates in their wubao (塢堡) (fortified settlements) when the local communities relied on the magnates to direct their defense after the 311 sack of Luoyang. Oaths were pledged in alliances between paramount commanders who joined their fortress villages together in leagues.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glahn |first1=Richard von |title=An Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=1107030560 |page=170 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z02SCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&lpg=PA170#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5C9CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT302#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=2016}}</ref> The magnates retained the services and fealty of their thrall retainers after the fighting was over. Subject to the emperor was overtaken by the concept of village membership. Magnates had both unrelated bondsmen, private clients and fellow clan kinsmen in their armies. 50 to 60 square leagues of farmland in Hebei's southwest Taihang mountain foothills were taken as a fief by thousands of members of the Han Chinese aristocratic Zhaojun Li clan under the leader of a cadet leader of the clan, Li Xianfu. Clan loyalties were extensively utilized by local magnates.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glahn |first1=Richard von |title=An Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=1107030560 |page=171 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z02SCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA171&lpg=PA171#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Li Xianfu was appointed as zongzhu (宗主) (clan chief) by the clan collectively in spite of him not inheriting the officer and rank of his father which went to his elder brother. Local level order was controlled by Li Xiangu and other magnates and the Northern Wei Xianbei monarchs had to rely on them. The Northern Wei gave them title of governors officially in their fiefs. In Shanxi and Hebei the magnate clans became even more powerful and local society was dominated by them and they experienced increased solidarity due to Northern Wei patronage. These arrangement with local Han Chinese aristocratic magnate clans led to a lack of soldiers and revenue directly under the control of the Northern Wei state itself. Particularly after the 460s when Liu Song held Huaibei and Shandong were taken by the Northern Wei they needed soldiers and tax revenue. Nobles, officials and meritorious generals received large amounts of lihu (隸戶) or tongli (僮隸) (bondservants) from war captives in according with Xianbei nomad tradition during wars. These bondservants, compared to the past, made up a large part of the farming population under Northern Wei. The zahu (雜戶) (service households) made out of artisans, weavers, salt makers, entertainers, clerks were also turned into hereditary occupations among war captives captured by Northern Wei, while privately entertainers and craftsmen were also attached to magnate families. The few independent farmers under Northern Wei were subjected to the demands of corvée labor from the states due to the fact that Xianbei noble and Han Chinese aristocratic households controlled the majority of the population as retainers. The Northern Wei attempted to back up its thinly stretched Xianbei warriors by conscription Han Chinese free subjects into their military in 473 but this only let to the magnates gaining more private client retainers as the Han Chinese farmers chose to became retainers to evade the conscription and corvée. These were the regions for the reforms under Empress Dowager Wenming (438-90)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glahn |first1=Richard von |title=An Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=1107030560 |page=172 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z02SCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172&lpg=PA172#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> when she tried to turn the state into a Han Chinese style bureaucratic centralized empire. She reigned as regent for her grandson Emperor Xiaowen and brought into the Northern Wei government Han Chinese aristocrats. The capital was moved to the Central Plain's Luoyang away from Pingcheng in 493 by Emperor Xiaowen.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glahn |first1=Richard von |title=An Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=1107030560 |page=173 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z02SCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA173&lpg=PA173#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>
The system of having retainers (buqu) existed in the Xin dynasty to the Tang dynasty and was part of the Northern Wei.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tseng |first1=Chin-Yin |title=The Representation of Military Troops in Pingcheng Tombs and the Private Household Institution of Buqu in Practice |journal=Asian Studies |date=2019 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=221-243. |doi=https://doi.org/10.4312/as.2019.7.2.221-243 |url=https://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/as/article/view/8313 |archiveurl=https://www.academia.edu/39904058/The_Representation_of_Military_Troops_in_Pingcheng_Tombs_and_the_Private_Household_Institution_of_Buqu_in_Practice|archive-date=2020}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cao_Wei&action=edit§ion=7
During the [[Three Kingdoms]] period of China, in northern China's [[Cao Wei]] kingdom society was feudalized and vassalized. When China was divided in the Period of Disunion, south and north were economically and socially dominated by an aristocratic hereditary class enshrined in law, who were exempt from conscript labor, special kinds of taxes, had legal immunities and other privileges. This situation was created by Cao Wei with rigid social stratification backed by law between shu (庶) (commoner) households and shi (士) (noble) households in the Nine ranks system which was created by Cao Wei and enabled hereditary officeholding by the aristocratic magnate families. Magnates took in farming families and war refugees into their fortress villages as ke (客) (private clients) and as buqu (military retainers) who made up their private militias. These magnates were rich landowners and local warlords and their economic and social power only grew at this time. The military retainers stayed own as private agricultural laborers bonded to the magnate families even after war ended. They did not contribute any labor service or taxes to the central government while their magnate lord received 50% or more of their grain harvest. They effectively were bondservants to their lords.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glahn |first1=Richard von |title=An Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=1107030560 |page=157|edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z02SCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157&dq=%22local+warlords+and+rich+landowners+formed+private+militias+of+military+retainers%22&source=bl&ots=YvItR9A-ZL&sig=ACfU3U28f7l6CXqae9bh45xXoN2I7VMj2Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjMv8GJxqzvAhWupFkKHXzBB1UQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=%22local%20warlords%20and%20rich%20landowners%20formed%20private%20militias%20of%20military%20retainers%22&f=false}}</ref> The fortified villages with defense works were built by powerful Han Chinese clans in northern China and residents under them as the Later Han was ending. They were strong in defense, hard to destroy and self sufficient and scatted across the region. The fortified villages were even impregnable against the five barbarians (Wu Hu). 100,0000 households gathered in 300 fortified villages in Shanxi north of Taiyuan in 350. Pounded earth fort villages numbered 3,000 across Shaanxi province by 400. They elected regional leaders after banding together in alliances. In southern China under Eastern Jin, the Han Chinese refugees who had migrated from north to south also formed the same social organization with vassal retainer families bonded to aristocratic magnate clans. One of them was said to have "inherited enormous fortunes from his father and grandfather, becoming prosperous and enterprising. His bondservants were numerous. His disciples and retainers counted by the hundreds. He executed engineering projects of tunneling mountains and dredging lakes. He worked on them without end". He was fu composer Xie Linygun charged with sedition in 433 and executed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Huang |first1=Ray |last2=Huang |first2=Jen-yü |title=Broadening the Horizons of Chinese History: Discourses, Syntheses, and Comparisons |date=1999 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |location=An East gate book |isbn=0765603489 |page=133 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RLloK7hHiGAC&pg=PA133&lpg=PA133&dq=But+scattered+and+selfsufficient,+they+were+most+difficult+to+raze.+Even+the+invading+nomads,+classified+by+Chinese+historians+as+made+of+five+different+ethnic+groups,+found+them+impregnable.+Around+350+A.D.,+north+of+Taiyuan+in+today%C2%ABs+Shanxi,+...&source=bl&ots=dgiTcpf-lT&sig=ACfU3U3z6vShJ9bmAdlJQz919-vFlhYd-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi19ZTewazvAhWsTd8KHROPB0IQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=But%20scattered%20and%20selfsufficient%2C%20they%20were%20most%20difficult%20to%20raze.%20Even%20the%20invading%20nomads%2C%20classified%20by%20Chinese%20historians%20as%20made%20of%20five%20different%20ethnic%20groups%2C%20found%20them%20impregnable.%20Around%20350%20A.D.%2C%20north%20of%20Taiyuan%20in%20today%C2%ABs%20Shanxi%2C%20...&f=false |archive-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yo2TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT100&lpg=PT100&dq=But+scattered+and+selfsufficient,+they+were+most+difficult+to+raze.+Even+the+invading+nomads,+classified+by+Chinese+historians+as+made+of+five+different+ethnic+groups,+found+them+impregnable.+Around+350+A.D.,+north+of+Taiyuan+in+today%C2%ABs+Shanxi,+...&source=bl&ots=dgiTcpf-lT&sig=ACfU3U3z6vShJ9bmAdlJQz919-vFlhYd-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi19ZTewazvAhWsTd8KHROPB0IQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=But%20scattered%20and%20selfsufficient%2C%20they%20were%20most%20difficult%20to%20raze.%20Even%20the%20invading%20nomads%2C%20classified%20by%20Chinese%20historians%20as%20made%20of%20five%20different%20ethnic%20groups%2C%20found%20them%20impregnable.%20Around%20350%20A.D.%2C%20north%20of%20Taiyuan%20in%20today%C2%ABs%20Shanxi%2C%20...&f=false |archive-date=2016}}</ref>
[[The Buqu system led to semi-feudal private armies|Military history of the Three Kingdoms]] during the Three Kingdoms period in northern China.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Theobald |first1=Ulrich |title=buqu 部曲, private armies |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/buqu.html |website=(www.chinaknowledge.de) |date=2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hereditary Buqu - Wei - Total War: THREE KINGDOMS ... |url=https://www.honga.net/totalwar/three_kingdoms/technology.php?l=en&v=three_kingdoms&f=3k_main_faction_cao_cao&t=3k_main_tech_fire_tier3_hereditary_buqu |website=Royal Military Academy: Total War |date=2008 - 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Regional Commissioners (TW3K Reform) |url=https://wiki.twcenter.net/index.php?title=Regional_Commissioners_(TW3K_Reform) |website=TWC Wiki |date=Feb 6, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Zha |first1=Carl |url=https://twitter.com/carlzha/status/1079609032883630081 |date=Dec 31, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=personal retainer | English examples in context |url=https://ludwig.guru/s/personal+retainer |archiveurl=https://us.buqu.info/reviews/5216116010/|archive-date=2020 |website=Ludwig}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_castles_in_China&action=edit§ion=2
Fortified walled villages were founded in southwestern, south and in north China. They were called baozi (堡子) (fortresses) in northern China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Knapp |first1=Ronald G. |title=China's Old Dwellings |date=2019 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0824881117 |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1rGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181&dq=The+scant+records+that+exist+suggest+that+many+of+these+families+reached+the+zenith+of+their+affluence+in+the+two+centuries+...+The+emergence+of+fortified+residential+complexes+appears+to+have+been+an+architectural+response+to+unsettled+...+Throughout+northern+China,+walled+villages+as+well+as+some+residential+complexes+found+within+them+are+called+baozi+%E5%A0%A1%E5%AD%90+or+bao+...+of+the+nineteenth+century+and+then+again+at+the+beginning+of+the+twentieth+century,+just+as+the+Qing+dynasty+was+ending.&source=bl&ots=G6Jsxv0jpb&sig=ACfU3U0XJBHw_T8WI8dSCo_NvpEc1ptGLQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj8qMu0wqzvAhUsZN8KHYB0DD8Q6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=The%20scant%20records%20that%20exist%20suggest%20that%20many%20of%20these%20families%20reached%20the%20zenith%20of%20their%20affluence%20in%20the%20two%20centuries%20...%20The%20emergence%20of%20fortified%20residential%20complexes%20appears%20to%20have%20been%20an%20architectural%20response%20to%20unsettled%20...%20Throughout%20northern%20China%2C%20walled%20villages%20as%20well%20as%20some%20residential%20complexes%20found%20within%20them%20are%20called%20baozi%20%E5%A0%A1%E5%AD%90%20or%20bao%20...%20of%20the%20nineteenth%20century%20and%20then%20again%20at%20the%20beginning%20of%20the%20twentieth%20century%2C%20just%20as%20the%20Qing%20dynasty%20was%20ending.&f=false}}</ref>
During the fall of the Ming dynasty in northern China and fighting between the Ming and Shun dynasty rebels and Qing in the 1640s, powerful Han Chinese magnates in Henan ran their own Zhai (fortified blockhouse villages). They were a 3-5 li square compound with earthen walls. There was a stone fort or square tower and a high tiled building in it. The magnate's tenants, who mostly numbered 30 families lived inside of the compound. Each magnate leader of the zhai had their own private soldiers. Some of their tenants were bankrupt farmers, urban vagrants, petty traders while the owners were failed government students, salt merchants and large landowners. At the time of the Ming collapse some of the local Han magnates in Henan were attacking local government magistrates, seizing land, raping women and killing people with their private armies. These had 1,000 qing of land and were very wealthy gentry families. Their activities were reported by Henan's grand coordinated in 1640. Some of them were named "insert surname" family estate (jiazhuang) if everyone in it had the same surname. One in Henan was given the title of regional vice-commander and colonel by the Ming in 1643 after he took control of part of northern Henan after partnering with Zuo Liangyu form his original base in southeast Henna of Runing prefecture where he ran salt wells with his 4 brothers. He was Liu Hongqi and was the most powerful among them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wakeman |first1=Frederic E. |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China, Volume 1 |date=1985 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520048040 |page=370 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA370&lpg=PA370&dq=%22to+confirm+the+appointment+of+magnates+who+advocated+irredentism+too+shrilly+from+their+fortified+blockhouses+(zhai)+in+the+northern+districts+of+that+province%22&source=bl&ots=PgoFwb8QsU&sig=ACfU3U2yjAidPRtwNI-ZvvlLaY-uRrosKA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKqcqVn67vAhVfF1kFHd_dD9gQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=%22to%20confirm%20the%20appointment%20of%20magnates%20who%20advocated%20irredentism%20too%20shrilly%20from%20their%20fortified%20blockhouses%20(zhai)%20in%20the%20northern%20districts%20of%20that%20province%22&f=false |volume=Volume 2 of Great Enterprise}}</ref> During the Qing and Republic of China there wereentire fortified villages with moats and walls dominated by lineage clans in southeastern China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Potter |first1=Sulamith Heins |last2=Potter |first2=Jack M. |title=China's Peasants: The Anthropology of a Revolution |date=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=052135787X |page=10 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yp_2oSBhP28C&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=Before+the+fall+of+the+Qing+Dynasty,+in+1911,+the+leaders+included+the+gentry+graduates+of+the+nationwide+civil+service+examinations,+which+...+Their+fortified+villages,+complete+with+walls+and+moats,+were+not+purely+decorative.+Confucian+officials+from+Northern+China+looked+upon+these+troublesome+people+as+barbarians.&source=bl&ots=V5zloKNhPm&sig=ACfU3U1vIv-3knLfcqD0hlSCbuaYaRxwcg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjzs--gwqzvAhXtQ98KHTkSCGwQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=Before%20the%20fall%20of%20the%20Qing%20Dynasty%2C%20in%201911%2C%20the%20leaders%20included%20the%20gentry%20graduates%20of%20the%20nationwide%20civil%20service%20examinations%2C%20which%20...%20Their%20fortified%20villages%2C%20complete%20with%20walls%20and%20moats%2C%20were%20not%20purely%20decorative.%20Confucian%20officials%20from%20Northern%20China%20looked%20upon%20these%20troublesome%20people%20as%20barbarians.&f=false}}</ref>
There were shanzhai (mountain forts) in rural Dabie Shan and MaCheng while in the 19th century rural Huaibei's floodplain had yuzhai (polder forts) numbering over 600 as counted by Elizabeth Perry. Western Zhou dynasty forts in Macheng include Tucheng zhai and Hongmiao Zhai. More were built during the 9th century Huang Chao rebellion by locals to defend against the rebels like to Yanjiahe's southeast, Huangchao zhai.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rowe |first1=William T. |title=Crimson Rain: Seven Centuries of Violence in a Chinese County |date=2007 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0804754969 |page=129 |edition=illustrated, annotated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeHiHpz9SsEC&pg=PA129&lpg=PA129&dq=Fortified+villages+were+also+to+be+found+in+other+parts+of+the+empire+;+Elizabeth+Perry+,+for+example+,+has+vividly+...+In+Macheng+today+there+are+ruins+of+two+forts+,+the+Hongmiao+zhai+and+the+Tucheng+zhai+,+said+to+date+as+far+back+as+the+...+Like+the+Dabie+Shan+/+Dongshan+highlands+,+this+was+a+transprovincial+region+,+encompassing+Hubei%27s+Xiangyang+Prefecture+and+portions+of+adjacent+Henan+and+Shaanxi+.&source=bl&ots=pFEZErFMXp&sig=ACfU3U3mihXjs0n2PKdeNF4k6NPycjaYKg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0zr6QwqzvAhXjmOAKHRNxBMgQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=Fortified%20villages%20were%20also%20to%20be%20found%20in%20other%20parts%20of%20the%20empire%20%3B%20Elizabeth%20Perry%20%2C%20for%20example%20%2C%20has%20vividly%20...%20In%20Macheng%20today%20there%20are%20ruins%20of%20two%20forts%20%2C%20the%20Hongmiao%20zhai%20and%20the%20Tucheng%20zhai%20%2C%20said%20to%20date%20as%20far%20back%20as%20the%20...%20Like%20the%20Dabie%20Shan%20%2F%20Dongshan%20highlands%20%2C%20this%20was%20a%20transprovincial%20region%20%2C%20encompassing%20Hubei's%20Xiangyang%20Prefecture%20and%20portions%20of%20adjacent%20Henan%20and%20Shaanxi%20.&f=false}}</ref> In Guangdong, there were mountain village forts for safety from war and uprising called zhaizhu (stockades) where gentry like Chaoyang native Zhou Boyu and his wife, a Longxi (Chaozhou) native lived at the end of the Yuan during rebellions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xu |first1=Shiduan |editor1-last=Lee |editor1-first=Lily Xiao Hong |editor2-last=Wiles |editor2-first=Sue |title=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang Through Ming, 618-1644 |date=2014 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=0765643162 |page=108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw0pAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108&lpg=PA108&dq=Zhao+Qingzhen.+...+1310%E2%80%93after+1371+(Yuan+dynasty),+of+Fengxiang+Village+in+Longxi+(present-day+Chaozhou+region,+Guangdong+Province),+was+born+...+While+claiming+to+defend+the+fortified+villages,+some+local+elements+had+other+ambitions.&source=bl&ots=RZ0VycvLqh&sig=ACfU3U0JUa6HifIHST-Dwub78lBeRZOq9A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj1vprtwazvAhXCmeAKHWJ2BXcQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=Zhao%20Qingzhen.%20...%201310%E2%80%93after%201371%20(Yuan%20dynasty)%2C%20of%20Fengxiang%20Village%20in%20Longxi%20(present-day%20Chaozhou%20region%2C%20Guangdong%20Province)%2C%20was%20born%20...%20While%20claiming%20to%20defend%20the%20fortified%20villages%2C%20some%20local%20elements%20had%20other%20ambitions.&f=false |chapter=Guo Zhenshun |others=Translated by Laura Long}}</ref>
In the 9th century, national government offices were filled members from 75 aristocratic elite clans numbering in the thousands, including the top prominent clans like the Fanyang Lu, Zhaojun Li, Qinghe Cui, each of whom had 4 branches and the Boling Cui which had 5 branches all of which were the "marriage-ban clans" along with the imperial family and other patrilineal clans. Many of them lived in the capitals Luoyang and Chang'an.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tackett |first1=Nicolas |title=The Destruction of the Medieval Chinese Aristocracy |date=2020 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=168417077X |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_gFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA119#v=onepage&q&f=false |series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians&action=edit§ion=3
Shi Le was originally a slave of the Han Chinese before the Wu Hu revolt.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tanner |first1=Harold M. |title=China: A History (Volume 1): From Neolithic Cultures through the Great Qing Empire, (10,000 BCE - 1799 CE) |date=2010 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |isbn=1603845631 |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lzuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA147#v=onepage&q&f=false |quote=Volume 1 of China: A History}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Corradini |first1=Piero |title=The Barbarian States in North China |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |date=2006 |volume=50 |issue=2 |page=187 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928429?seq=1}}</ref> A Sogdian letter also calls the Xiongnu as property of the Chinese emperor before rebelling against him.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Keay |first1=John |title=China: A History |date=2009 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=046502002X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YfKOGTcHvncC&pg=PT173&lpg=PT173&dq=%22And,+Sir,+the+last+Emperor+%E2%80%93+so+they+say+%E2%80%93+fled+from+%5BLuoyang%5D+because+of+the+famine.+And+his+fortified+residence+burnt+down,+and+the+town+was+%5Bdestroyed%5D.+So+%5BLuoyang%5D+is+no+more,+%5BYeh%5D+is+no+more!+.+.+.+They+pillaged+up+to+N%E2%80%99ymn%E2%80%99ymh+and+up+to+Ngap,+these+Xiongnu+who+yesterday+had+been+the+Emperor%E2%80%99s+property!+.+.+.+And,+Sir,+if+I+wrote+you+all+the+details+of+how+China+fared,+it+would+be+%5Ba+catalogue%5D+of+debts+and+woe.+You+will+have+no+wealth+from+here+.+.&source=bl&ots=Cc4TZEAZ2F&sig=ACfU3U0YW7rS6Njg8zCGUzAdNFaKLW61CQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjHj_Kjqq7vAhUREFkFHRYCAgwQ6AEwAHoECAQQAw#v=onepage&q=%22And%2C%20Sir%2C%20the%20last%20Emperor%20%E2%80%93%20so%20they%20say%20%E2%80%93%20fled%20from%20%5BLuoyang%5D%20because%20of%20the%20famine.%20And%20his%20fortified%20residence%20burnt%20down%2C%20and%20the%20town%20was%20%5Bdestroyed%5D.%20So%20%5BLuoyang%5D%20is%20no%20more%2C%20%5BYeh%5D%20is%20no%20more!%20.%20.%20.%20They%20pillaged%20up%20to%20N%E2%80%99ymn%E2%80%99ymh%20and%20up%20to%20Ngap%2C%20these%20Xiongnu%20who%20yesterday%20had%20been%20the%20Emperor%E2%80%99s%20property!%20.%20.%20.%20And%2C%20Sir%2C%20if%20I%20wrote%20you%20all%20the%20details%20of%20how%20China%20fared%2C%20it%20would%20be%20%5Ba%20catalogue%5D%20of%20debts%20and%20woe.%20You%20will%20have%20no%20wealth%20from%20here%20.%20.&f=false |quote=https://erenow.net/common/keayjohnchinaahistory/32.php|archive-date=2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Keay |first=John |author-link= |date=2011 |title=China: A History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DfzQDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA204#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher=Basic Books |edition=reprint |page=204 |isbn=0465025188}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lin |first=Gang |others=Translated by Duan Manfu, Lin Yang, Min Song |author-link= |date=2020 |title=A GENERAL HISTORY OF THE XIONGNU |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ne_mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher= Pmerican Academic Press|page=144 |isbn=1631816721}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=KAWAMOTO |first=Yoshiaki |editor1-last=Xiong|editor1-first=Victor Cunrui|editor2-last=Hammond|editor2-first= Kenneth J. |others= Translated by Yoon-rim KIM |author-link= |date=2018 |title=Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmNwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT136#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher=Routledge |edition=illustrated|page= |chapter=5 THE JIN AND THE SIXTEEN STATES The Five Barbarian Groups and the Sixteen States The Five Barbarian Groups and the states they founded |isbn=1317538226}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ford |first=Randolph B. |author-link= |date=2020 |title=Rome, China, and the Barbarians: Ethnographic Traditions and the Transformation of Empires |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxfeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA278#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page=278 |isbn=1108596606}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last1=Keay |first1=John |title=China: A History |date=2011 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=0465025188 |page=204 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DfzQDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA204#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lin |first1=Gan |title=A GENERAL HISTORY OF THE XIONGNU |date=2020 |publisher=American Academic Press |others=Translated by Duan Manfu, Lin Yang, Min Song |isbn=1631816721 |page=144 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ne_mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Yoshiaki |first1=KAWAMOTO |editor1-last=Xiong |editor1-first=Victor Cunrui |editor2-last=Hammond |editor2-first=Kenneth J. |title=Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |others=Translated by Yoon-rim KIM |isbn=1317538226 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmNwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT136#v=onepage&q&f=false |chapter=5 THE JIN AND THE SIXTEEN STATES}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ford |first1=Randolph B. |title=Rome, China, and the Barbarians: Ethnographic Traditions and the Transformation of Empires |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=1108596606 |page=278 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxfeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA278#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty&action=edit§ion=7
Many Han Chinese families in northern China from the Jin dynasty defected to the Mongols after the 1211 Mongol attack against the Jin. These Han Chinese families being indispensable and instrumental in Mongol empire rule and administration in sedentary parts of China. One of these families was the Shi family led by Shi Bingzhi (Shih Ping-chih and his sons including Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse) in autumn 1213 when they defected at Cho-chou to Mongol general Muqali's lieutenant Se'unidei, with Shi Bingzhi leading thousands of followers under him to defect after learning voluntary defectors would h ave their lives spared. The Shi family were influenccal and wealthy in their area south of Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Yongqing (Yung-ch'ing) hamlet of Xinglong li (Hsing-lung li).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false |format=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |quote=ISSN 0571-320X}}</ref>
Northern China was governed in the Mongol empire by hereditary Han Chinese feudal lords and Mongol nobles who were each assigned fief domains in 1236 under Ogedei. The term "hereditary lords" (shihou) were applied to them. They controlled fiscal, military and administrative manners in their domains.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=false |format=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |quote=ISSN 0571-320X}}</ref>
Shi Tianze was closer to Ogedei's youngest brother Tolui, than to Ogedei since Zhending (Chen-ting) was the Tolui fief in northern China. More than other fiefs in northern China, Zhending had the ability to field the biggest army and had the most population due to Shi Tianze's rule over it since Princess Sorqaqtani (died in 1252), the widow of Tolui who received Zhending in 1236 appointed Shi Tianzi to administer the fief in her stead. She withdrew Mongol soldiers stationed in the fief at Shi Tianze's request since they were disrupting management. Han Chinese from the Zhending fief were recruited by Sorqaqtani to serve on her staff and unusually for Mongol nobles, she was personally interested in the fief. Shi Tianze received Weizhou (Weizhou)'s 5 cities as his own fief in 1251 as a grant from her son Mongke Khan. Kublai was the younger brother of Mongke and recruited the Han Chinese military feudal lords Zhang Rou (Chang Jou) and Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse) into his service in addition to Han Chinese literati as advisors when he became viceroy in northern China in 1251. In 1244 he already recruited Han Chinese advisors. Kublai's interest in his family's Zhending fief made him familiar with Shi Tianze and he recruited to his court as advisors Shi Tianze's proteges Li Zhi (Li Chih) and Zhang Dehui (Chang Te-hui).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false |volume=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |ISSN= 0571-320X}}</ref>
Shi Tianze made the transition into becoming a bureaucrat in Kublai's central government away from his previous military administration regional warlord status, urging Kublai to divide civil powers from military powers for the regional feudal warlords including his own family. The Han Chinese hereditary military warlords had hoped one day northern China would be returned to traditional bureaucratic style government which is why they supported Kublai. This meant the end of hereditary privileges in the fiefs and for fiscal, civil and military powers to be centralized in the central government. The provinces Pacification Bureau and the creation of the central government's Secretarial Council by Kublai were moves in this direction. However insecurity and the civil war by Kublai against Ariq boke led to a halt in the process of centralizing the Han Chinese warlord controlled feudal fiefs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false |volume=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |ISSN=0571-320X}}</ref>
Shi Tianze helped in siege warfare and military supplies for the Mongol empire and he helped Kublai restore administration in China to traditional Chinese bureaucracy as he did in Henan. He led Han Chinese forces in the Mongol army that destroyed the Jin dynasty. His relatives in the Shi family like Shi Yuanheng (1264-1317) and Shi Xun continued serving in Yuan dynasty official posts. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false |volume=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |ISSN= 0571-320X}}</ref>
A Han Chinese scholar official, Zhou Xianchen (1188-1262) who was skilled in martial arts led a militia against the Mongols in his town in 1216 and then defected to the Mongols. His brother passed the civil service exams and he was supposed to as well. The Mongols made him a hereditary feudal warlord in northern Shanxi province, Dingxiang town. One of the passes in the Jin border wall, Yanmen was immediately north of Dingxiang. Zhou Xianchen became a military local feudal warlord instead of a scholar-official examination candidate. He ruled Dingxiang as Shihou (hereditary vassal), the title awarded to him by the Mongols for his military service to the Mongol empire. He cooperated with [[Quanzhen Daoism|Quanzhen Daoists]] to help rebuild the social order in northern China. Quanzhen nun Guo Shouwei worked with Zhou Xianchen.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law|date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=xuanshou+qianhu&source=bl&ots=Rmu0gXGez_&sig=ACfU3U1HXGrPEeJc7Tx3zSK3j2ExGyqUHQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiLkZyjxu_vAhXJKVkFHUUNDIUQ6AEwB3oECAcQAw#v=onepage&q=xuanshou%20qianhu&f=false |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=2 |isbn=1684171008}}</ref>
Han Chinese general Cui Li betrayed the Jurchens and defected to the Mongols. Cui Li murdered defiant Jin officials and civilian ministers and surrendered Kaifeng to the Mongols. A stele honouring Cui Li was erected by Confucian literati Yuan Haowen. Han Chinese defector soldiers and Mongol soldiers arrested Jin officials and kept them in Shandong's Liaocheng county under arrest after Kaifeng was surrendered.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=61 |isbn=1684171008}}</ref>
Yelu Chucai urged the Mongols to spared the Han civilians of Kaifeng after the siege, which they did.<ref>{{cite book |last=范 |first= 曾 |date=2004 |title= 范曾画外话|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DThAAAAAMAAJ&q=yelu+chucai+kaifeng+spare&dq=yelu+chucai+kaifeng+spare&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi8xLrX7ICBAxW_hf0HHUi4A2UQ6AF6BAgGEAI |publisher=河北教育出版社 |page=75 |isbn=7543452936}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Buchanan|first= Keith M. |last2= Fitzgerald|first2= Charles Patrick |last3= Ronan|first3= Colin A. |date=1981 |title= China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WOmFAAAAIAAJ&q=yelu+chucai+kaifeng+spare&dq=yelu+chucai+kaifeng+spare&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi8xLrX7ICBAxW_hf0HHUi4A2UQ6AF6BAgEEAI |edition=illustrated |publisher=Crown Publishers |page=269 |isbn=0517544946}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= May|first= Timothy |date=2016 |title=The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 Volumes] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEXPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT388&dq=yelu+chucai+kaifeng+spare&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi8xLrX7ICBAxW_hf0HHUi4A2UQ6AF6BAgKEAI |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |page= |isbn=9798216119050}}</ref>
Han Chinese defector from Shanxi, Wang Ji defected to the Mongols under Batu and Muqali and Genghis. Wang Ji was able to intercede for Han Chinese civilians in Hebei with the Mongols returning 10% of their looted animals to them and trading food for valuables and interceded with Batu agreeing to spare civilians after a rebellion when Wang Ji gave them his guarantee, and the awarding of feudal appanages to non-Mongol allies and Mongol nobles was entrusted by Genghis Khan to Wang Ji. Yeu Chucai also urged Mongols to spare civilians in northern China. like Kaifeng.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eisma |first=Doeke |date=2006 |title=Chinggis Qan and the Conquest of Eurasia: A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQ2_byGXWFUC&pg=PA74&dq=yelu+chucai+kaifeng+spare&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi8xLrX7ICBAxW_hf0HHUi4A2UQ6AF6BAgIEAI |publisher= |page= 74 |isbn=1847289746}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wintle |first=Justin |date=2002 |title= China|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=n2WKejUSPRgC&pg=PA204&dq=yelu+chucai+kaifeng+spare&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi8xLrX7ICBAxW_hf0HHUi4A2UQ6AF6BAgHEAI|edition=illustrated |publisher= Rough Guides|page=204 |isbn=1858287642|series=Travels Through History Series}}</ref>
The head of Quanzhen Daoism, Qiu Chuji was sought by all three rival powers, the Mongols, Southern Song and Jin dynasty in 1219. Only Genghis Khan's summons were accepted by Qiu Chuji who travelled in 1220-1222 to Afghanistan in the Hindu Kush to see him. Genghis (Chinggis)granted the Quanzhen Daoists complete corvee labour and tax exemption and Qiu Cuji was officially recognized by the Mongol state as their leader. All Quanzhen Daoist followers were immediately granted immunity from enslavement by Mongol soldiers as ordered by Genghis Khan. They also obtained the right of granting monastic plaques without government authorization which was required in the Jin and northern Song. While the Tang dynasty state monopolized ordination, Quanzhen Daoists were given the right to do so by Genghis. from 1234-1260 in northern China the Mongol empire's capital was on the steppe of Mongolia in Karakorum, not in northern China so northern China was ruled by decentralized hereditary Han Chinese feudal vassal warlords in cooperation with the Quanzhen Daoist sect. This allowed Quanzhen Daoism to become a major religion in the region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67&lpg=PA67&dq=%22Qiu+sent+his+disciples+to+distribute+Daoist+ordination+certificates+among+the+prisoners+of+war+to+redeem+more+than+twenty%22&source=bl&ots=Rmv0dWH8t-&sig=ACfU3U16Nu7DvaYrACsILL9IjJsN3SsnYQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZmI_OyYnyAhUpU98KHTekAokQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22Qiu%20sent%20his%20disciples%20to%20distribute%20Daoist%20ordination%20certificates%20among%20the%20prisoners%20of%20war%20to%20redeem%20more%20than%20twenty%22&f=false |location= |publisher=BRILL |pages=67-68|isbn=1684171008}}</ref> All of northern China saw a massive expansion in Quanzehn Daoism where thousands of convents and abbeys were built with Mongol support. Quanzhen Daoism was under complete cleric control unlike other religious sects where clerics did not fully control temples and instead temple associations and local families of laymen did. The duties of infrastructure construction and relief work and other things normally done by the government were carried out by the Quanzhen Daoist sect under the supervision of the Han Chinese hereditary vassal feudal lords in northern China under the Mongol empire. Yin Zhuping was asked by the feudal Han Chinese lords to do rituals after he temporarily succeeded Qiu Chuji while he was away meeting Genghis Khan. Yanjing (Beijing) hosted the Mongol empire administrative agency which the Han Chinese feudal vassal lords reported to.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68&lpg=PA68&dq=%22the+time+was+in+practice+under+the+decentralized+rule+of+many+Chinese+Hereditary+Vassals+who+pledged+allegiance+to+the+Mongols%27&source=bl&ots=Rmv0dWH7x2&sig=ACfU3U0neBD-aZh4xUIrUZXhApSiVNqNFw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjm282yyYnyAhXNhOAKHdczDEoQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22the%20time%20was%20in%20practice%20under%20the%20decentralized%20rule%20of%20many%20Chinese%20Hereditary%20Vassals%20who%20pledged%20allegiance%20to%20the%20Mongols'&f=false|location= |publisher=BRILL |pages=68|isbn=1684171008|doi=https://doi.org/10.1163/9781684171002_004}}</ref> https://brill.com/view/book/9781684171002/BP000004.xml
Post 1234 during Mongol empire administration in north China, Quanzhen Daoists and hereditary Han Chinese warlord vassals were the highest social and political class among the Han population and the Han Chinese hereditary vassal warlords patronized literature like Yuan Haowen.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22but+it+was+a+group+of+non-literati+warlords%22&source=bl&ots=Rmv0c3Cdu1&sig=ACfU3U0X7BhU_79smCXdcYQUNcim7XTpMQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4psnRk4nyAhXqQd8KHUGAD98Q6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22but%20it%20was%20a%20group%20of%20non-literati%20warlords%22&f=false |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=62 |isbn=1684171008}}</ref> https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22but+it+was+a+group+of+non-literati+warlords%22&source=bl&ots=Rmv0dWC7zW&sig=ACfU3U2hG1qmgBXFM4NqyCoErDT1XHuu8Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjo2crotonyAhXDUjUKHfgpCyMQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
Mongol soldiers automatically freed their slaves if they converted to Quanzhen Daoism, so enslaved scholar officials converted as mentioned by a scholar from south Shanxi. Homeless Jin literati with no options at all took refuge in the Quanzhen Daoist sect as they were patronized and supported by the order, in opposition to the usual role of Daoist and Buddhist clergy being patronized by literati. In Shanxi major post war and post natural disaster (plague, drought) reconstruction was undertaken by the Quanzhen Daoists.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=70 |isbn=1684171008}}</ref> Han Chinese vassal warlord Yan Shi supported the return to north Shanxi of Yuan Haowen after he was released from Mongol custody and Yuan Haowen had many relatives and friends who joined Quanzhen Daoism despite he himself not joining it and remaining Confucian. Areas under control of the Han Chinese hereditary vassal warlords and Mongols were safe and the Quanzhen sect operated in them so when the Mongol empire moved to take over all the remaining Jin dynasty regions in Henan and Shaanxi, it triggered floods of Han Chinese from the targeted areas in Henan towards the safety of the Quanzhen sect under control of the Han Chinese feudal warlords. Quanhen Daoists did not have to pay taxes or do labour for the government.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |location= |publisher=BRILL |page=71 |isbn=1684171008}}</ref>
Since the Mongol soldiers did not attack Quanzhen followers, people in the Quanzhen sect like the Han Chinese nun Zhang Shouwei and her children could freely travel throughout war torn Shanxi in the 1230s between Zezhou and Taiyuan (300 km) without being killed, attacked or enslaved by Mongol soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA90&lpg=PA90&dq=%22her+identity+as+a+Quanzhen+nun+not+only+protected+shouwei+from+Mongol+violence+but+also+gave+her+access+to+locally+powerful+families%22&source=bl&ots=Rmv0dWGdy-&sig=ACfU3U1uTU37c5hVrBiWG8F58pphRh8iwg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi96tv3x4nyAhWEneAKHQ7rDr8Q6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22her%20identity%20as%20a%20Quanzhen%20nun%20not%20only%20protected%20shouwei%20from%20Mongol%20violence%20but%20also%20gave%20her%20access%20to%20locally%20powerful%20families%22&f=false|location= |publisher=BRILL |page=90 |isbn=1684171008}}</ref>
The Mongol empire categorized people into Daoist and Buddhist households for exempting them from labour. They also decided to create "Confucian households" and brought families into this category in northern China through a unique one time imperial exam in Yanjing supervised by the Khitan Yelu Chucai in 1237-1238 which many Jin literature participated in along with Song Defang and Qin Zhi'an who were converts to Quanzhen Daoism and former Confucian literati during the Jin. the Confucian households would work as government clerks for the Mongol empire. Song Defang and Qin Zhi'an helped build many office branches of their Daoist lineages throughout Shanx, Henan and Shaanxi and print Daoist texts. Another person who was an examination student under the Jin, He Zhiyuan converted to Quanzhen Daoism and helped his religious master Song Defang print the texts in Taiyuan, Shanxi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|location= |publisher=BRILL |page=76 |isbn=1684171008}}</ref>
The primary exam site was at Pingyang. The exam was open to all who had been literati during the Jin even if they were slaves of Mongol soldiers. Slaves and prisoners made up one fourth of the Confucian household literati who passed the exam according to Makino Shuji and there were 4,000 who passed the exam in total. The literati would then be freed if their friends and family members would pay a ransom. However if they had no friends or family they could become free without paying a ransom but converting to Quanzhen Daoism since Genghis Khan issued an edict that no Quanzhen Daoist could be enslaved by the Mongols. This was one of the reasons He Zhiyuan converted to Quanzhen Daoism despite passing the exam. Due to northern China still being unstable or a warzone despite the fall of the Jin dynasty since the Southern Song was fighting the Mongols, some Confucian Jin literati still converted to Quanzhen Daoism to guarantee their safety even through they were economically secure and free and classified as Confucian households. Li Daoqian was one of the wealthy Confucian household former Jin literati who passed the special exam and converted to Quanzhen Daoism, working at a Shaanxi office helping compile Daoist texts. Chinese Confucian literati worked as clerks in lower ranking government offices, in state and local schools as teachers and farming like Li Ping and his sons from Lingchuan. An official publishing and editing office of the Mongol empire was set up in Pingyang by Yelu Chucai and it was called the Jingji suo (Office of literature) and among the compilers there was Ma Ge, another Confucian literati convert to Quanzhen Daoism and a friend of Yuan Haowen.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Jinping |author-link= |date=2020 |title=In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600|series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FV75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77&dq=%22In+contrast,+becoming+a+Quanzhen+Daoist+guaranteed+immediate+freedom%22&source=bl&ots=Rmv0dWGeAV&sig=ACfU3U2J_4fqNKIT5H1_Yz1taYlgSvGTgQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjLlIKuyInyAhXrRd8KHfBKBqkQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22In%20contrast%2C%20becoming%20a%20Quanzhen%20Daoist%20guaranteed%20immediate%20freedom%22&f=false|location= |publisher=BRILL |page=77 |isbn=1684171008}}</ref>
Shi Tianze's relative Shi Tianlin served in the Mongol empire as a judge at the far western end of the Mongol empire most likely during the conquest of Russia and the Qipchaqs by Batu Khan. A Mongol name was bestowed upon him. He was stopped for 28 years in Central Asia under Qaidu after Mongke Khan sent him there. He came back to China in the yuan dynasty and the Yuan appointed his grandson and son as judges. His spirit way inscription (shendaobei) at his tomb uses Mongol terms like jasagh with Chinese concepts, calling the Analacts of Confucius (Lunyu) as "the jasagh of Confucius" since falu was translated as jasagh. Helachechen, Ladu Duan, Moleqili and Lad Jin were the 4 wives of Shi Tianlin recorded on his shendaobei. His daughters and sons were given a mixture of Turkic, Mongol and Chinese names. Lan Shi, Xiao Jia and Ma San, three Han Chinese villagers were falsely accused of plotting rebellion against the Yuan by Mubarak, a Muslim farmer. The two preceding judges over the case against Mubarak were the Heir Apparent's Bureau judge (duanshiguan) Dorji and Department of State Affairs judge Shi Qaidu, a descendants of Shi Tianlin. The ordered the beating of Alamsha and Mubarak as punishment for their slander. "A dragon-headed cane used by the Jin emperor" was given by Kublai Khan to Shi Tianlin after Shi Tianlin advised Kublai there was nothing to fear from an image of a Song emperor in a statue in a Daoist temple since the Liao dynasty capital of Xijing had statatues of Liao emperors but nothing happened since there was no power in them. The Mongols made offerings of butter and fat to human sized statues on the steppe and kept in their houses felt statues (onggons) so they feared they might have power. Shi Tianlin's grave was in [[Shunzhou]] after he died in 1309. He became [[Yuan Wuzong]]'s Privy councillor and during Batu Khan's western campaign he was tutor to princes and under [[Yuan Chengzong]] he was instructor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodous |first1=Florence |last2= |first2= |date=2017 |title=A Judge at the Crossroads of Cultures: Shi Tianlin |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/201778/1/10.1515_asia-2017-0013.pdf|archive-url1=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-Judge-at-the-Crossroads-of-Cultures%3A-Shi-Tianlin-Hodous/c34fd61bf20d50ee741bf73fcea42939efee0214 |archive-url2=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/asia-2017-0013/html |archive-url3=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/asia-2017-0013/pdf|journal= Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=1137-1151 |doi=https://doi.org/10.1515/asia-2017-0013 |archive-url3=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322867887_A_Judge_at_the_Crossroads_of_Cultures_Shi_Tianlin|archive-date1=2017|archive-date2=2017|archive-date3=2017|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Biran |first=Michal |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State In Central Asia|series=Central Asia Research Forum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AU3jAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20&dq=Shi+Tianlin+judge&source=bl&ots=-p9L1vPWlu&sig=ACfU3U2fU42M7u1QIYTgV-SV1F6RIM_Fcw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZsuXtlInyAhXrFFkFHe6zD8sQ6AEwEHoECBgQAw#v=onepage&q=Shi%20Tianlin%20judge&f=false |location= |publisher= Routledge|page=20 |isbn=1136800379}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Fairey |editor-first=Jack |editor2-last= Farrell|editor2-first=Brian P. |author-link= |date=2018 |title=Empire in Asia: A New Global History: From Chinggisid to Qing |series=Empire in Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC1uDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT14&lpg=PT14&dq=Shi+Tianlin+judge&source=bl&ots=aAcIC7-Wfy&sig=ACfU3U2HiJImoLZXdca9EJ-EOudLOuuqPA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZsuXtlInyAhXrFFkFHe6zD8sQ6AEwEXoECBcQAw#v=onepage&q=Shi%20Tianlin%20judge&f=false |location= |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page= |isbn=1472591224}}</ref>
Han Chinese general Guo Kan served in the Middle East under Hulagu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodous |first1=Florence |last2= |first2= |date=2020|title=1. Guo Kan: Military Exchanges between China and the Middle East |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1.-Guo-Kan%3A-Military-Exchanges-between-China-and-Hodous/2843851f74233532bcba393769fff61a2decfb7f |journal= Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=1137-1151 |doi=10.1525/9780520970786-005 |access-date=}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mongols_in_China&action=edit§ion=1
The Ming stationed Mongol troops serving them in Guangxi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Gaspar da |editor1-last=Boxer |editor1-first=C.R. |title=South China in the Sixteenth Century (1550-1575): Being the narratives of Galeote Pereira, Fr. Gaspar da Cruz, O.P. , Fr. Martin de Rada, O.E.S.A., (1550-1575) |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1317052234 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hggkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT123&lpg=PT123&dq=saw+many+Tatar+captives+who+have+no+other+captivity+than+to+serve+for+men-at-arms+in+other+places+far+from+Tatary;+and+they+wear+for+a+difference+red+caps,+being+otherwise+dressed+like+the+Chinese+with+whom+they+live.+They+have+for+their+maintenance+a+certain+stipend+of+the+King,+which+they+have+paid&source=bl&ots=vSf3vjHWdm&sig=ACfU3U1-4gM1vrEwE9wH4tlpNZzjKDkVXQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiPyMfo3oPwAhU1JzQIHRYoAdkQ6AEwAHoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q=saw%20many%20Tatar%20captives%20who%20have%20no%20other%20captivity%20than%20to%20serve%20for%20men-at-arms%20in%20other%20places%20far%20from%20Tatary%3B%20and%20they%20wear%20for%20a%20difference%20red%20caps%2C%20being%20otherwise%20dressed%20like%20the%20Chinese%20with%20whom%20they%20live.%20They%20have%20for%20their%20maintenance%20a%20certain%20stipend%20of%20the%20King%2C%20which%20they%20have%20paid&f=false |series=Hakluyt Society, Second Series}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=CRUZ |first1=GASPAR DA |editor1-last=Boxer |editor1-first=Charles Ralph |title=Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society |date=1953 |publisher=The Society (Hakluyt Society) |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fts7AAAAIAAJ&q=saw+many+Tatar+captives+who+have+no+other+captivity+than+to+serve+for+men-at-arms+in+other+places+far+from+Tatary;+and+they+wear+for+a+difference+red+caps,+being+otherwise+dressed+like+the+Chinese+with+whom+they+live.+They+have+for+their+maintenance+a+certain+stipend+of+the+King,+which+they+have+paid&dq=saw+many+Tatar+captives+who+have+no+other+captivity+than+to+serve+for+men-at-arms+in+other+places+far+from+Tatary;+and+they+wear+for+a+difference+red+caps,+being+otherwise+dressed+like+the+Chinese+with+whom+they+live.+They+have+for+their+maintenance+a+certain+stipend+of+the+King,+which+they+have+paid&hl=en&newbks=1 |series=South China in the Sixteenth Century: Being the Narratives of Galeote Pereira, Fr. Gaspar Da Cruz, O.P. [and] Fr. Martín de Rada, O.E.S.A.,}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=DA CRUZ |first1=GASPAR |title=Works, Volume 106 |date=1967 |publisher=Kraus Reprint |author=Hakluyt Society |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nngAAAAMAAJ&q=saw+many+Tatar+captives+who+have+no+other+captivity+than+to+serve+for+men-at-arms+in+other+places+far+from+Tatary;+and+they+wear+for+a+difference+red+caps,+being+otherwise+dressed+like+the+Chinese+with+whom+they+live.+They+have+for+their+maintenance+a+certain+stipend+of+the+King,+which+they+have+paid&dq=saw+many+Tatar+captives+who+have+no+other+captivity+than+to+serve+for+men-at-arms+in+other+places+far+from+Tatary;+and+they+wear+for+a+difference+red+caps,+being+otherwise+dressed+like+the+Chinese+with+whom+they+live.+They+have+for+their+maintenance+a+certain+stipend+of+the+King,+which+they+have+paid&hl=en&newbks=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Boxer |first1=Charles Ralph |editor1-last=Boxer |editor1-first=Charles Ralph |title=South China in the Sixteenth Century, Being the Narratives of Galeote Pereira, Fr. Gaspar Da Cruz, O.P. [and] Fr. Martín de Rada, O.E.S.A. (1550-1575) |date=1967 |publisher=Kraus Reprint |page=85 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkiAAAAAMAAJ&q=saw+many+Tatar+captives+who+have+no+other+captivity+than+to+serve+for+men-at-arms+in+other+places+far+from+Tatary;+and+they+wear+for+a+difference+red+caps,+being+otherwise+dressed+like+the+Chinese+with+whom+they+live.+They+have+for+their+maintenance+a+certain+stipend+of+the+King,+which+they+have+paid&dq=saw+many+Tatar+captives+who+have+no+other+captivity+than+to+serve+for+men-at-arms+in+other+places+far+from+Tatary;+and+they+wear+for+a+difference+red+caps,+being+otherwise+dressed+like+the+Chinese+with+whom+they+live.+They+have+for+their+maintenance+a+certain+stipend+of+the+King,+which+they+have+paid&hl=en&newbks=1 |issue=Issue 106 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor_Gong_of_Song&action=edit§ion=6
A travelogue at he Dafo si temple of Zhangye in Gansu records a story about Shundi being fathered by the former Southern Song emperor Zhao Xian, who was married to one of Kublai's daughters. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunnell |first1=Ruth W. |title=The Great State of White and High: Buddhism and State Formation in Eleventh-Century Xia |date=1996 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0824817192 |page=82 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CMyW3QASFIC&pg=PA82&dq=jin+bohong+song+daughter+qubilai&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=jin%20bohong%20song%20daughter%20qubilai&f=false}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ispah_rebellion&action=edit§ion=4
Yuan troops massacred Semu Ispah rebels with big noses. "许多色目人遇害，甚至有汉人因为长着高鼻梁或卷发而被误杀的，"<ref>{{cite web |title=元朝末年色目人的反叛——波斯戍兵之乱(3) |url=https://www.changshifang.com/cs/lishi/10413_3.html |website=常识坊www.changshifang.com - 网站排行榜 |date=2016-09-02 |archive-url=https://archive.is/P5oyu|archive-date=3 March 2021}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iranians_in_China&action=edit§ion=14
Central Asian rulers from [[Chach]] sent dancing girls and from [[Khuttal]] sent singing girls to Tang dynasty China.<ref>{{cite book |author=Arabian American Oil Company |title=Aramco World Magazine, Volumes 36-37 |date=1985 |publisher=Arabian American Oil Company |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPESAQAAMAAJ&q=khuttal+chach+girls&dq=khuttal+chach+girls&hl=en&newbks=1}}</ref>
Central Asian rulers sent slave musicians as tribute to China. A female musician troupe was sent from the upper Oxus country of Khuttal by its king in 733 to China. The Tang dynasty Chinese Xuanzang (Hsüan Tsung) emperor's court received Sogdian girls who danced on rolling balls and dressed in boots of red deerskin, pantoloons made of green damask and crimson robes as tribute from Samarkand, Maimargh, Kish and Kumadh in the beginning of the 8th century. They were called "Western Twirling Girls" and these female dancers were a favorite in China.There was an erotic and amorous dance done by 2 girls wearing gold bells on peaked hats, red shoes and silver girdles belted around caftans which were diaphanous and embroided. This dance was called "The Dance of Chach" from Tashkent and was perfiormed by these girls sent to China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schafer |first1=Edward H. |title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics, Volume 1 |date=1963 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=55, 56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Z7cZ77SqEQC&pg=PA55&dq=khuttal+chach+girls&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=khuttal%20chach%20girls&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=And |first1=Metin |title=Drama at the Crossroads: Turkish Performing Arts Link Past and Present, East and West |date=1991 |publisher=Isis Press |isbn=9754280266 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YOhkAAAAMAAJ&q=khuttal+chach+girls&dq=khuttal+chach+girls&hl=en&newbks=1 |url2=https://books.google.com/books?newbks=1&id=YOhkAAAAMAAJ&dq=khuttal+chach+girls&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22by+two+girls+dressed+in+diaphanous+embroidered+caftans+belted+%22 |url3=https://books.google.com/books?newbks=1&id=YOhkAAAAMAAJ&dq=khuttal+chach+girls&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22sent+as+gifts+to+the+court+of+Hs%C3%BCan+Tsung+in+the+first+half+of+the+eight%22 |url4=https://books.google.com/books?newbks=1&id=YOhkAAAAMAAJ&dq=khuttal+chach+girls&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22king+of+Khuttal+%2C+a+country+on+the+upper+Oxus+%2C+sent+a+troupe+of+female+musicians%22 |url5=https://books.google.com/books?newbks=1&id=YOhkAAAAMAAJ&dq=khuttal+chach+girls&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22female+musicians%22}}</ref>
Big nosed Sogdians were massacred during the An Lushan rebellion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaissière |first1=Étienne de la |title=Sogdian Traders: A History |date=2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9047406990 |page=220 |series=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cqWODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miscegenation&action=edit§ion=33
The Ming Hongzu Emperor passed a law in the Ming code's article 122 which said that Central Asian Semu women and Mongol women must marry Chinese men and that Central Asian Semu men and Mongol men must marry Chinese women. If the Central Asian Semu and Mongol women and men refused to intermarry with Chinese, they were to be punished by being enslaved and beaten 80 times and they were banned from marrying men and women of their own ethnicities. The exception were the Qincha and Hui Muslims who looked different to Chinese so Chinese did not have to marry them and they were not required to intermarry with Chinese.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Farmer |editor1-first=Edward L. |title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule |date=1995 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004103910 |pages=82-83 |volume=Volume 34 of Sinica Leidensia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jiang |first1=Yonglin |title=The Mandate of Heaven and The Great Ming Code |date=2011 |publisher=University of Washington Press, 2011 |isbn=0295801662 |page=125 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s-7-CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Jiang |editor1-first=Yonglin |title=The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu |date=2012 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295804009 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h58hszAft5wC&pg=PA88}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=World Federation of Islamic Missions |title=The Minaret, Volume 39 |date=2002 |publisher=edited and published by Muhammed Ja'fer for the World Federation of Islamic Missions. |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bG5TAAAAYAAJ&dq=qincha+married&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=qincha+married}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhengde_Emperor&action=edit§ion=3
The Muslim eunuchs and Muslim concubines of Zhengde (Wuzong) who lived with him in his harem in the Baofang (Pao-fang) palace influenced him to regard Muslims favorably and he possibly banned pig slaughter because of them. The slaughter of pigs was banned under the pretense that his surname Zhu was a homophone of pig and he was born in the year of the pig.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leslie |first1=Donald Daniel |editor1-last=Le Blanc |editor1-first=Charles |editor2-last=Blader |editor2-first=Susan |title=Chinese Ideas About Nature and Society: Studies in Honour of Derk Bodde |date=1987 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |isbn=962209189X |page=186 |pages=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2-k571kpOwC&pg=PA186 |chapter=Living with the Chinese: the Muslim Experience in China, T'ang to Ming}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=LIN |first1=CHANG-KUAN |title=CHINESE MUSLIMS OF YUNNAN, SOUTHWEST CHINA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THIER REVOLT 1855-1873 |date=1991 |page=33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L9xwAAAAMAAJ&dq=muslim+concubines+eunuchs+influence+pig&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=influenced+pigs}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=JENYNS |first1=SOAME |title=MING POTTERY AND PORCELAIN |date=1953 |publisher=Faber and Faber |page=99 |series=The Faber monographs on pottery and porcelain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApnkCgXLKOMC&dq=wu-tsung+fifteen+boar+mohammedan+arabic&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=muslim+ladies+harem}}</ref> His Muslim Semu [[Jinyiwei]] guard Yu Yong was one of those who influenced him.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leslie |first1=Donald |title=Islam in traditional China: a short history to 1800 |date=1986 |publisher=Canberra College of Advanced Education |page=114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5uMPAQAAIAAJ&dq=muslim+concubines+eunuchs+influence+pig&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=eunuchs+concubines}}</ref> The Central Asian Muslim Yu Yong was skilled in sexual matters so in 1508 he was requested by the Zhengde Emperor to join him in the Leopard Quarter. Yu Yong gave Central Asian Muslim women dancers to the Zhengde Emperor telling him that Muslim women were more beautiful than Chinese women. Zhengde (Wuzong) loved Central Asian Muslim women. Ma Ang's sister, the beautiful Lady Ma was one of these Muslim women and she was pregnant and married to another man when she was brought to become a concubine of Zhengde in 1516.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McMahon |first1=Keith |title=Celestial Women: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Song to Qing |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=1442255021 |page=112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPbnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA112}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bryant |first1=Daniel |title=The Great Recreation: Ho Ching-ming (1483-1521) and His World |date=2008 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004168176 |pages=443-445 |volume=Volume 89 of Sinica Leidensia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bwvR9xuxalkC&pg=PA444}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Li Shi |title=History of Ming Dynasty (Part II): 二十四史 明史（中） |publisher=DeepLogic |series=China Twenty-four Histories |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtOIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT26}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galdan_Boshugtu_Khan&action=edit§ion=2
Galdan conquered the Muslims of Turfan, Hami and Kashgar in the late 1670s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spence |first1=Jonathan D. |title=The Search for Modern China |date=1990 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=0393307808 |page=65 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vI1RRslLNSwC&pg=PA65}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism&action=edit§ion=3
Most foreign missionaries left China after Wuzong’s edict in 845.<ref>{{cite book |last=Saeki |first= P. Y. |date= 1916 |title= The Nestorian Monument in China |url=https://ia802708.us.archive.org/12/items/nestorianmove00saekuoft/nestorianmove00saekuoft.pdf |publisher= The Macmillan Co.|page= 48 }}</ref>
71. A century later, Christianity in China seems to have fallen to a very low ebb, though probably not quite to zero as the next information on the subject would imply. This is derived from a circumstance noted by an Arabian author, Mahomed, the son of Isaac, surnamed Abulfaraj, who says :-"In the year 377 (A.D. 987), behind the church in the Christian quarter (of Baghdad), I fell in with a certain monk of Najran, who seven years before had been sent to China by the Catholicos, with five other ecclesiastics, to bring the affairs of Christianity in that country into order. He was a man still young, and of a pleasant countenance, but of few words, opening his mouth only to answer questions. I asked him about his travels, and he told me that Christianity had become quite extinct in China. The Christians had perished in various ways; their Church had been destroyed; and but one Christian remained in the land. The monk, finding nobody whom he could aid with his ministry, had come back faster than he went.'2<ref>{{cite book |editor-last= Yule |editor-first=Henry |author-link= |date=2017 |title=Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China: Volume I |series=Hakluyt Society, First Series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XgkkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT105&lpg=PT105&dq=%22i+fell+in+with+a+certain+monk+of+najran,+who+seven+years%22&source=bl&ots=1YB3rIzXCl&sig=ACfU3U0_PJtw-hThkhaQvIe4PMkU8hNH0w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjWiI7fwt31AhWXO-wKHRGEA5wQ6AF6BAgGEAM |location= |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page= |isbn=1317169387}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Barnes |first= Lemuel Call |author-link= |date= 2000|title= Two Thousand Years of Missions Before Carey: Based Upon and Embodying Many of the Earliest Extant Accounts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NMcYL6zjPsC&pg=PA114&lpg=PA114&dq=%22i+fell+in+with+a+certain+monk+of+najran,+who+seven+years%22&source=bl&ots=kQa3efykKy&sig=ACfU3U3tSsRw2QhK9S3VxbgG4L8wYbV0gw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjWiI7fwt31AhWXO-wKHRGEA5wQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |edition=illustrated, reprint|publisher=Asian Educational Services |page=114 |isbn=8120615395}}</ref>https://open.bu.edu/bitstream/handle/2144/616/twothousandyears014145mbp.txt?seq..<ref>{{cite book |last= Yule |first=Sir Henry |author-link= |date= 1866 |title=Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Volume 1 |series=Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Francesco Balducci Pegolotti|issue=Issues 36-37 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8lYJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR96&lpg=PR96&dq=%22i+fell+in+with+a+certain+monk+of+najran,+who+seven+years%22&source=bl&ots=lu_Ulisa47&sig=ACfU3U13Psbe_sLQp_KzrqVRSMIVSfCq-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjWiI7fwt31AhWXO-wKHRGEA5wQ6AF6BAgFEAM |location= |publisher=Hakluyt society |page=xcvi |isbn=}}</ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=iQ1DAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR96&lpg=PR96&dq=%22i+fell+in+with+a+certain+monk+of+najran,+who+seven+years%22&source=bl&ots=CpT36h95zH&sig=ACfU3U09pFDYlNgzlDW96n3JeDj5eOSEAw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjWiI7fwt31AhWXO-wKHRGEA5wQ6AF6BAgDEAM https://archive.org/stream/CathayAndTheWayThitherVol1/Cathay_and_the_way_thither_a_collection_djvu.txt https://archive.org/stream/cathaywaythither01yule/cathaywaythither01yule_djvu.txt<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=Hakluyt Society |date=1847 |title=Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society, Edizione 36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nidg55zxdZ4C&pg=PR96&lpg=PR96&dq=%22i+fell+in+with+a+certain+monk+of+najran,+who+seven+years%22&source=bl&ots=S3P8JIYEm5&sig=ACfU3U35IMwWOYe4Z264q1X_yuG0rDTJ_g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjWiI7fwt31AhWXO-wKHRGEA5wQ6AF6BAgEEAM |location= |publisher= he Society|page=xcvi |isbn=}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing&action=edit
The [[Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty]] from 1633 and 1644 killed 90% of people in Shaanxi in 1640 and it spread throughout northern China in Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi and Shandong and throughout the Grand Canal to Jiangnan. Everywhere north of the Yangtze river in China was truck by plague and famine in 1643-44 and caused the collapse of the Ming state as no one could plant or transport crops and the dead could not pay taxes while rebels and the Qing fought against the Ming.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201230162715/https://supchina.com/2020/12/30/how-a-cataclysmic-plague-marked-the-end-of-ming-china/|title=How a cataclysmic plague marked the end of Ming China |last= Carter |first=James |date= December 30, 2020|website= SupChina}}</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/thechinaproj/status/1344319000109580290</ref> The Ming dynasty fell in Beijing immediately after 1643-1644 when Tianjin and Beijing were hit by two different plague epidemics which were mentioned in a memorandum in the Grand Secretariat archives by Governor-General Luo Yangxing.<ref>{{cite journal |last=邱 |first= 仲麟|date=民國九十三年六月 |title= 明代北京的瘟疫與帝國醫療體系的應變 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806003707/https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/3028acXZKHg.pdf |journal=中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊 |volume= 七十五|issue= 二|pages=331-388 }}</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/ihptaiwan/status/1569305914460753927</ref>
The Ming dynasty's collapse was also caused by massive droughts along the Pacific, triggering peasant rebellions.<ref>{{cite journal |las1=Chen |first=Feng |date= 2024|title=Coupled Pacific Rim megadroughts contributed to the fall of the Ming Dynasty’s capital in 1644 CE |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Coupled-Pacific-Rim-megadroughts-contributed-to-the-Chen-Wang/90ff0460a94174829bc847ca3e4a81945f1ff3ed |journal= Science Bulletin |pages= |doi= 10.1016/j.scib.2024.04.029}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Fangyu |last2=Chen |first2=Xudong |last3=Su |first3=Yun |date=2022 |title=Comparative Analysis of Extreme Drought Events and Social Impacts in Henan Province during the Middle Ming Dynasty |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Comparative-Analysis-of-Extreme-Drought-Events-and-Tian-Chen/5f6c643fce92f29187676895dabc3c7540ff8c65 |journal=Weather, Climate, and Society |volume= 14 |issue=3 |pages= 1009–1021 |doi= 10.1175/WCAS-D-22-0015.1}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jin%E2%80%93Song_Wars&action=edit§ion=20
Jin Jurchen general Pusan Anzhen [[w:zh:僕散安貞|僕散安貞]] was executed with his two sons by the Jin on treason charges in 1221 after he returned from a war against the Southern Song. He said “The sages are right. A family should not have three generations of generals in a row."<ref>{{cite book |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |date= 2016 |title= The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History |url=https://dokumen.pub/the-gunpowder-age-china-military-innovation-and-the-rise-of-the-west-in-world-history-9781400874446.html |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=43 |isbn=9781400874446}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaidu–Kublai_war&action=edit§ion=3
During the war between Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty against Qaidu and Du'a for control of Xinjiang (the Tarim Basin and Turfan basin under the Uyghur Idiqut kingdom of Qocho), the Yuan Han Chinese commander Qi Gongzhi was captured after the Yuan were defeated in [[Jimsar County|Besh Baliq]] by Qaidu and Du'a in 1286. The Uyghur kingdom of [[Qocho]] suffering these assaults by Qaidu had to be given financial compensation by Kublai. The Tarim Basin and Uighuria kingdom of Qocho were continually assaulted in the 1280s by Du'a and Qaidu to put Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty under severe financial strain and forced them to give Central Asia up to Qaidu. Kublai was forced to end the Khotan based Bureau of Pacification in 1289, and withdraw the Besh Baliq and Khotan military colonies of Han Chinese soldiers loyal to the Yuan. And 1,050 Shaanxi and Gansu origin Han Chinese living in Kashgar and Khotan baesd colonies as craftsmen came back home in winter, 1288. Yuan soldiers abandoned Besh Baliq, Kashgar and Khotan to Qaidu. The border moved eastwards as Qaidu's soldiers occupied the bandoned ares in Xinjiang and it was in the middle of Qara Qocho. Qaidu ordered an officer of Melik Temur named Zhangji (Jangqi) to assault eastwords towards Hamili (Hami). He managed to siphon finances from Besh Baliq, Khotan and Kashgar to force Kublai Khan to retreat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Biran |first=Michal |author-link= |date= 2013|title=Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State In Central Asia |series=Central Asia Research Forum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AU3jAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=qi+gongzhi+yuan&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwix5cr9q9j1AhWpQ_EDHSBlBD0Q6AF6BAgEEAI |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=44 |isbn=1136800379|quote=commander Qi Gongzhi and thus consolidated their control of the regionl. ... this area during the 1280s, and this also led to more expenses than revenues].3 From 1288 on, there are thus several reports of Yuan retreat from Central Asia.}}</ref> https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45585617
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chagatai_Khan&action=edit§ion=5
Juvaini claimed that : ''“And he enacted minute yasa that were an intolerable imposition upon such as the Taziks, [so] that none might slaughter meat in the Moslem fashion nor sit by day in running water, and so on. The yasa forbidding the slaughter of sheep in the lawful manner he sent to every land; and for a time no man slaughtered sheep openly in Khorasan, and Moslems were forced to eat carrion.”''<ref>{{cite podcast |url=https://podbay.fm/p/ages-of-conquest-a-kings-and-generals-podcast/e/1621850400 |title=2.47. History of the Mongols: Chagatai Khanate #1 |website= podbay.fm|publisher=Ages of Conquest: a Kings and Generals Podcast |host=Kings and Generals|date= Posted May 24, 2021 at 1:00 pm.|time= 34 minutes |access-date=}}</ref> https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chaghatayid-dynasty
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iranian_peoples&action=edit§ion=18
Haplogroup O was found in 1%-1.2% of Persians in one sample.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mehrjoo |first1=Z|last2=Fattahi |first2=Z|last3=Beheshtian |first3=M|last4= Mohseni |first4=M|last5=Poustchi |first5=H|last6= Ardalani |first6= F|date= 2019|title= Distinct genetic variation and heterogeneity of the Iranian population|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1008385|journal= PLoS Genet |volume= 15|issue=9 |number=|pages=|doi= https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1008385|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fattahi |first1= Z|last2=Beheshtian |first2=M|last3=Mohseni |first3=M |date=2019 |title= Iranome: A catalog of genomic variations in the Iranianpopulation|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334689231_Iranome_A_catalog_of_genomic_variations_in_the_Iranian_population|journal=Human Mutation |volume=40 |issue= |number=|pages=|1968–1984doi= https://doi.org/10.1002/humu.23880|access-date=}}</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/nrken19/status/1493354265548570627 https://twitter.com/nrken19/status/1529874531430563841</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iranian_peoples&action=edit§ion=18
In the Iranic population, O-M175 is found in [[Iran]]ian (Esfahan) at 6.3% ({{harvnb|Wells et al.|2001}}), 8.9% of Tajiks in Afghanistan<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haber |first1=Marc |last2=Platt |first2=Daniel E. |last3=Ashrafian Bonab |first3=Maziar |last4=Youhanna |first4=Sonia C. |last5=Soria-Hernanz |first5=David F. |last6=Martínez-Cruz |first6=Begoña |last7=Douaihy |first7=Bouchra |last8=Ghassibe-Sabbagh |first8=Michella |last9=Rafatpanah |first9=Hoshang |last10=Ghanbari |first10=Mohsen |last11=Whale |first11=John |last12=Balanovsky |first12=Oleg |last13=Wells |first13=R. Spencer |last14=Comas |first14=David |last15=Tyler-Smith |first15=Chris |last16=Zalloua |first16=Pierre A. |title=Afghanistan's Ethnic Groups Share a Y-Chromosomal Heritage Structured by Historical Events |journal=PLOS ONE |date=28 March 2012 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=e34288 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0034288 |pmid=22470552 |pmc=3314501 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...734288H |doi-access=free }}</ref> 4.2% in the [[Pashtun people|Pathans]] in Pakistan ({{harvnb|Firasat|2007}}) but 1% in Afghanistan, 3.1% in [[Burusho people|Burusho]] ({{harvnb|Firasat|2007}}).
A study published in 2013 found O-M175(xM119, M95, M176, M122) Y-DNA in 5.5% (1/18) Iranians from [[Teheran]], 5.4% (2/37) Tajiks from [[Badakhshan Province]] of Afghanistan, and 1/97 [[Mongols]] from northwest Mongolia, while finding O-M176 only in 1/20 Mongols from northeast Mongolia.<ref name = "DiCristofaro2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Di Cristofaro J, Pennarun E, Mazières S, Myres NM, Lin AA, Temori SA, Metspalu M, Metspalu E, Witzel M, King RJ, Underhill PA, Villems R, Chiaroni J | display-authors = 6 | title = Afghan Hindu Kush: where Eurasian sub-continent gene flows converge | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = e76748 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24204668 | pmc = 3799995 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0076748 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...876748D | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* {{cite journal |ref={{harvid|Wells et al.|2001}} | vauthors = Wells RS, Yuldasheva N, Ruzibakiev R, Underhill PA, Evseeva I, Blue-Smith J, Jin L, Su B, Pitchappan R, Shanmugalakshmi S, Balakrishnan K, Read M, Pearson NM, Zerjal T, Webster MT, Zholoshvili I, Jamarjashvili E, Gambarov S, Nikbin B, Dostiev A, Aknazarov O, Zalloua P, Tsoy I, Kitaev M, Mirrakhimov M, Chariev A, Bodmer WF | display-authors = 6 | title = The Eurasian heartland: a continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 98 | issue = 18 | pages = 10244–9 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 11526236 | pmc = 56946 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.171305098 | bibcode = 2001PNAS...9810244W | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal |ref={{harvid|Firasat|2007}} | vauthors = Firasat S, Khaliq S, Mohyuddin A, Papaioannou M, Tyler-Smith C, Underhill PA, Ayub Q | title = Y-chromosomal evidence for a limited Greek contribution to the Pathan population of Pakistan | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 121–6 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17047675 | pmc = 2588664 | doi = 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201726 }}
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manchu_language&action=edit§ion=19
The Qianlong emperor said that Manchu people were unable to speak Manchu language properly and their phonemes were being contaminated by Mandarin Chinese, saying "The pronunciation approached the nuances of Han" (音近漢人語氣) and "the sounds were mixed up" (音韻錯謬) in 1774 when reviewing Manchu language skills of certain Manchus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Coblin|first1= W. |date=2003 |title= A Sample of eighteenth century spoken Mandarin from North China|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/clao_0153-3320_2003_num_32_2_1632 |journal=Cahiers de Linguistique - Asie Orientale |volume= 32 |issue= 2|pages=207, 208 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>https://www.academia.edu/5531364/A_Sample_of_eighteenth_century_spoken_Mandarin_from_North_China</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=定 |first=宜庄|date=2011 |title= 满汉文化交流史话|volume=67 of 中国史话. 交通与交流系列|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yZN-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA101&lpg=PA101&dq=%22%E9%9F%B3%E8%BF%91%E6%BC%A2%E4%BA%BA%E8%AA%9E%E6%B0%A3%22&source=bl&ots=54QHrBokju&sig=ACfU3U33Y_GziADpdN5ioYDgpriUFLwxKQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi36quS2YWBAxXas6QKHX2pBykQ6AF6BAgJEAM |publisher=社会科学文献出版社 |page=101 |isbn=7509728347}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=张 |first1=一凡|date=May.2019 2019年5月|title=从满文文献视角观察清代满语文政策及其施行效应 |url=http://iqh.ruc.edu.cn/docs/2022-04/9899f7430329491c853834303a111c19.pdf |journal=Journal of Hebei Normal University for Nationalities 河北民族师范学院学报 |volume=39 |number=2 |page= 64}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mandarin_Chinese&action=edit§ion=3
Khitan transcription of Mandarin loanwords show that 經 and 京 were pronounced as ging (modern jing) and 西 as si (modern Xi).<ref>{{cite book |last=Kane |first=Daniel |date=2009 |title=The Kitan Language and Script |volume=166 of Brill's studies in intellectual history|series=Handbook of Oriental Studies|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BnsZjpIa-cYC&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=%22ging%22&source=bl&ots=bpL1dOotxK&sig=ACfU3U2r5pimw68s7iLBb0WU5A4fk8Wm4A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiK2p-V2YWBAxUyzAIHHdO1DSYQ6AF6BAgJEAM|location= |publisher=BRILL |page=39, 71, 75, 260, 264 |isbn=900416829X}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant&action=edit§ion=5
The Sunni Muslim Mamluks severely persecuted Christians and Jews under their control. They destroyed the Damascus great synagogue in 1271, built the Green College (al-madrasa al-khadra'), a Quranic school on top of a church in Alexandria they destroyed which had John the Baptist's head, executed the priest of the Jerusalem Church of the Holy Sepulcher. These were carried out by Shaykh Khadir, supported by Mamluk Sultan [[Baybars]]. The Mamluks between 1279-1417 destroyed 44 Coptic churches. When the Mongols came to Damascus in 1260 the Damascene Christians celebrated the Mongol attacks against the Sunni Muslim Mamluks and performed public religious parades denouncing Islam and proclaiming the victory of Christianity over it with their crosses. The Mamluks claimed "The Christians had destroyed mosques and minarests which were in the neighbourhood of their churches. They openly rang their bells, carried the cross in processions, drank wine in the streets, and sprinkled Muslims with it." as recorded by [[al-Maqrizi]]. The Mamluks then destroyed the Church of Mary and Church of the Jacobites and looted Christian houses across Damascus. This were due to the Mongols and Christians collaborating with each other against the Sunni Muslims. The Mamluks hated Coptic Christians especially.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hillenbrand |first1=Carole |title=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives |date=2000 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=0415929148 |page=416 |edition=illustrated, reprint, annotated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UalnoF5MBHMC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=%22openly+rang+their+bells,+carried+the+cross+in+processions,+drank+wine+in+the+streets,+and+sprinkled+muslims+with+it%22&source=bl&ots=U6U977yI3p&sig=ACfU3U2BmB-XlQXEnStyuij02aZHFECJVw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj6xsrz3ojxAhX1STABHd8kBrMQ6AEwAXoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22openly%20rang%20their%20bells%2C%20carried%20the%20cross%20in%20processions%2C%20drank%20wine%20in%20the%20streets%2C%20and%20sprinkled%20muslims%20with%20it%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hillenbrand |first1=Carole |title=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1135956138 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHh0DwAAQBAJ&pg=SA6-PA84&lpg=SA6-PA84&dq=%22openly+rang+their+bells,+carried+the+cross+in+processions,+drank+wine+in+the+streets,+and+sprinkled+muslims+with+it%22&source=bl&ots=TfP8iWvpKx&sig=ACfU3U0064ySwq8cUn92-6hT_FuwjUQK6Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj6xsrz3ojxAhX1STABHd8kBrMQ6AEwAHoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=%22openly%20rang%20their%20bells%2C%20carried%20the%20cross%20in%20processions%2C%20drank%20wine%20in%20the%20streets%2C%20and%20sprinkled%20muslims%20with%20it%22&f=false}}</ref> The Syrian Christians in Damascus and Aleppo hailed the Mongol Khan Hulagu and Mongol general Kitbuqa Noyan as their champions against the Sunni Muslims believing God sent them to destroy their Sunni Muslim oppressors who oppressed the Christians for 600 years. The Mongols exempted Christians from the slaughters they carried out against Sunni Muslims in Aleppo and Baghdad. The Mamluks retook Damascus from Mongol control after the battle of Ain Jalut on 3 September, 1260, mass slaughtering the Christians of Damascus when they noticed the Christians welcomed the Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity |date=2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=1838609334 |page=218 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT403&lpg=PT403&dq=%22conquered+Damascus+and+carried+out+a+bloodbath+among+the+Christians%22&source=bl&ots=pqlAWzTLiL&sig=ACfU3U2Kv6gE4bwC_OkSPus9s0NAdm3aww&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwii8Y2A34jxAhUsRjABHUY_CYMQ6AEwAHoECAUQAw#v=onepage&q=%22conquered%20Damascus%20and%20carried%20out%20a%20bloodbath%20among%20the%20Christians%22&f=false |archive-url=https://dokumen.pub/the-church-of-the-east-an-illustrated-history-of-assyrian-christianity-newnbsped-1784536830-9781784536831.html |archive-date=2016}}</ref> The Christians of Damascus celebrated the Mongol arrival in 1260 against the Mamluks.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first=Carole Hillenbrand |author-link= |date=2000 |title=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UalnoF5MBHMC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=%22mamluk+period+could+arouse+great+civic+unrest%22&source=bl&ots=U6V773yEar&sig=ACfU3U2M60WSzg9PB94nzJZZlxUhg5xzrg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiV_4H_svDyAhVpUt8KHXloAnMQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher= Psychology Press|edition=illustrated, reprint, annotated|page=416 |isbn=0415929148}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hillenbrand |first=Carole |author-link= |date=2018 |title=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHh0DwAAQBAJ&pg=SA6-PA84&lpg=SA6-PA84&dq=%22mamluk+period+could+arouse+great+civic+unrest%22&source=bl&ots=TfQ6iSvlRz&sig=ACfU3U07cHp896VzVxS8A0IRpoBY_SCdxw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiV_4H_svDyAhVpUt8KHXloAnMQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher=Routledge |edition=reprint|page= |isbn=1135956138}}</ref>
Baghdad was sacked for 34 days by the Mongols. The Mongols then sacked Aleppo and it was said "And there took place in Aleppo a slaughter like unto that of Baghdad only more terrible." by Bar Hebraeus.<ref>{{cite book |last= Day |first=Timothy |date=2018 |title= The Mongol Empire |url=https://dokumen.pub/the-mongol-empire-0748642366-9780748642366.html |publisher= Edinburgh University Press|page=166 |isbn=0748642366}}</ref> Hulagu and the Christian Kitbuqa suppressed Muslims while elevating Christians over them in Damascus and Baghdad.<ref>{{cite book |last=Favereau |first=Marie |date=2021 |title=The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World |url=https://dokumen.pub/the-horde-how-the-mongols-changed-the-world-0674244214-9780674244214.html |publisher=Harvard University Press |page= 161|isbn=0674244214}}</ref> The Mongols breached Ajami tower in the Baghdad walls with catapults and they built a wall of their own to surround Baghdad during the siege.<ref>{{cite book |date= 1998-9|author=Rashid al-Din Ṭabib|title=Jumi'u't-Tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles): A History of the Mongols, translated by W.M. Thackston|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20090201004230/http://deremilitari.org/resources/sources/baghdad.htm |location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|series=Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures|chapter=The Mongol's besiege and capture Baghdad in 1258}}</ref> The Mongols under Hulagu and Kitbuqa sacked Aleppo in 1259, massacring and plundering the city's inhabitants and Damascus then surrendered after this.<ref>{{cite book |date= 1998-9|author=Rashid al-Din Ṭabib|title=Jumi'u't-Tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles): A History of the Mongols, translated by W.M. Thackston|url=https://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/aleppo.htm |location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|series=Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures|chapter=The Conquest of Aleppo and the surrender of Damascus in 1259-1260}}</ref> Only the Christians were left alive while the Sunni Muslims were butchered in Aleppo when it was taken in January 1260 by the Mongols. The Mongol captured of Aleppo was hailed by the Crusader Christians of Antioch. In April the Damascus citadel fell to the Mongols after the city itself fell in March.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harpur |first=James |author-link= |date=2008 |title=The Crusades: The Two Hundred Years War: The Clash Between the Cross and the Crescent in the Middle East 1096-1291 |series=Prime Time History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OCGuWrNyjiEC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22next+target+was+syria,+and+his+advance+seemed+to+be+irresistible%22&source=bl&ots=pFxK0A3nf7&sig=ACfU3U0E-_-Xx3PczaKt6GNyk8SlR9V7Ng&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjDxZD2svDyAhXSmOAKHZEbDywQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22next%20target%20was%20syria%2C%20and%20his%20advance%20seemed%20to%20be%20irresistible%22&f=false |location= |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc|edition=illustrated |page=110 |isbn=1404213678}}</ref>
Damascus was sacked by the Mongols in two attacks from 1299-1301.<ref>{{cite book |author= Adh-Dhababi|editor1-last=Lowinger |editor1-first=Samuel |editor2-last=Somogyi |editor2-first=Joseph |date=1948 |title=Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, Part 1 |url= https://deremilitari.org/2014/02/the-destruction-of-damascus-by-the-mongols-in-1299-1301/|location=Budapest |page= 353-386|chapter=Adh-Dhababi’s Record of the Destruction of Damascus by the Mongols in 1299-1301 }}</ref> Ibn Taymiyyah pleaded for mercy from the Mongols from what the Georgian king was doing around Damascus.<ref>{{cite book |last= Hoover |first= Jon|editor-last= Daiber |editor-first= H.|series= Islamic Philosophy, TTheologyand Science Texts and Studies|author-link= |date=2007 |volume=VOLUME LXXIII|title= Ibn Taymiyyah's Theodicy of Perpetual Optimism|url=https://archive.org/details/IbnTaymiyyasTheodicyOfPerpetualOptimismByJonHoover/mode/2up |location= |publisher=BRILL |page= |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date=2019 |title= Ibn Taymiyya |series=Makers of the Muslim World|url=https://archive.org/details/hoover-taymiyya/mode/2up |location= |publisher=ONEWORLDACADEMIC |page= |isbn=}}</ref> The Christian Armenians and Georgians participated in the second Mongol conquest of Damascus under Ghazan in 1299 against Ibn Taymiyyah and the Mamluks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoover |first=Jon |author-link= |date=2019 |title=Ibn Taymiyya |series=Makers of the Muslim World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jt-vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22&lpg=PT22&dq=%22Georgians+because+they+would+be+of+more+benefit+to+the+Muslims+drunk%22&source=bl&ots=bk13iaZqr8&sig=ACfU3U1tqxvGqNAd5ZpX-dZHAenNTnP_OQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjf1LGe6fDyAhUHElkFHdqBDRAQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Georgians%20because%20they%20would%20be%20of%20more%20benefit%20to%20the%20Muslims%20drunk%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Simon and Schuster |page= |isbn=178607690X |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/hoover-taymiyya/page/n23/mode/2up|archive-date= 2021-02-18}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=17
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Baghdad&action=edit§ion=5
Baghdad has been called the "world's most attacked city" in the world due to it being sacked by foreign armies committing slaughter, torture and rape for over 1,300 years againts its inhabitants. Baghdad has been the single most attacked city in the world by conquerors such as the Mongols.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Marozzi |first1=Justin |title=Baghdad: the psychological toll of being the world’s most attacked city |url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/jun/20/baghdad-iraq-psychological-toll-worlds-most-attacked-city |agency=The Guardian |date=Fri 20 Jun 2014}}</ref> Hulagu Khan, the Buddhist leader of the Mongol army who supported Nestorian Christians since his wife and mother were Nestorians ordered everyone to be murdered or raped in Baghdad except Nestorian Christians. 3,000 Abbasid royal family members and official notables were executed by the Mongols with the caliph being last to be executed besides the hundreds of thousands to millions of civilians who were murdered and raped as their city was plundered in an unrestricted orgy of rape and slaughter that lasted for a week.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gearon |first1=Eamonn |title=The Mongol Sack of Baghdad in 1258 |url=https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/the-mongol-sack-of-baghdad-in-1258/ |website=The Great Courses Daily |date=February 9, 2017}}</ref> The Mongols cut off all escape routes around the city of Baghdad. The Mongols killed, enslaved or raped every civilian in Baghdad they captured as they destroyed wealth and books. The Persian historian Wassaf wrote that in Baghdad ''“They swept through the city like hungry falcons attacking a flight of doves, or like raging wolves attacking sheep, with loose reins and shameless faces, murdering and spreading terror…beds and cushions made of gold and encrusted with jewels were cut to pieces with knives and torn to shreds. Those hiding behind the veils of the great Harem were dragged…through the streets and alleys, each of them becoming a plaything…as the population died at the hands of the invaders.”'' The Islamic world was traumatized for hundreds of years by the destruction, killing, rape and plunder that the Mongols committed for 7 days. Hulagu himself took the Abbasid state treasury as he captured the lords, notable and caliph. Hulagu permitted his army to do whatever they wanted to Baghdad and its people for a week. It is regarded as among the most horrifying sacks of a city. The caliph was executed either by being trampled by cavalry while wrapped in carpets or was starved to death in a treasure vault by Hulagu. The Mongols besieged Baghdad for 13 days. Arab sources say there were million or even 2 million slaughtered in Baghdad.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Piper |first1=Grant |title=Horsemen of the Apocalypse: The Mongol Sack of Baghdad |url=https://historyofyesterday.com/horsemen-of-the-apocalypse-the-mongol-sack-of-baghdad-428dead27d52 |website=History of Yesterday |date=Feb 14 2021}}</ref>
The Mongol soldiers raped Muslim girls on the streets in Baghdad after dragging them house of their houses. They were from upper class families and would never have been in public otherwise. Children and women were begging Mongols for mercy with the Qur'an in their hands as they were being raped or slaughtered. For 30 days the Mongols slaughtered and raped Muslims in Baghdad as they destroyed books and scientific curiosities. Blood flowed and coloured the Tigris red and ankle-deep blood filled the streets of Baghdad. Domes had their gold ripped off shrines, mosques and palaces which were then destroyed. 75% of the 2 million population of Baghdad were slaughtered. The Mongols destroyed Baghdad and massacred the majority of the Abbasid royal family. Books were thrown into the river or burned, the Mongols dug corpse out of shrines as they destroyed them. Teachers and students and patients were slaughtered.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chughtai |first1=Azeem Beg |editor1-last=Abidi |editor1-first=Azhar |title=The Fall of Baghdad |journal=The Annual of Urdu Studies |date=2003 |pages=530-536 |url=https://minds.wisconsin.edu/bitstream/handle/1793/18386/47ABegChughtaiBaghdad.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y |archive-url1=https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/36250696/the-fall-of-baghdad-the-annual-of-urdu-studies=archive-date=2020|archive-url2=https://minds.wisconsin.edu/handle/1793/18386 |archive-date2=2020|publisher=Department of Languages and Cultures of Asia, University of Wisconsin–Madison}}</ref>
Muslim historians like Urmawi reported on the Mongol sack and rape of Baghdad. He gave an account of a songstress being raped by Mongols at the house of her house as neighbourhoods in Baghdad were sacked and plundered and extreme violence was inflicted upon Baghdad by the Mongols. The Mongols were not spontaneous in their violence but calculating and methodical in applying violence as ordered by Hulagu to his Mongol soldiers. The Mongols ordered 1 to 3 day "looting spans" as the sacking went on for 7 days. Hulagu granted safe conduct to certain Shia and to Christians and foreign Khorasani merchants while the rest of the population of Baghdad were slaughtered and raped. Urmawi recognized the Mongols right to rape and plunder Baghdad as per the laws of war despite hating it since he was a Muslim.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Biran |first1=Michal |editor1-last=GLEAVE |editor1-first=ROBERT |editor2-last=KRISTÓ-NAGY |editor2-first=ISTVÁN T. |title=Violence in Islamic Thought from the Mongols to European Imperialism |date=2018 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9781474462600 |pages=15-31 |url=http://mongol.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/Biran_2018_Violense%20and%20Non-Violense%20in%20the%20Conquest%20of%20Baghdad.pdf |archive-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1tqxvdf |archive-date=2020 |chapter=CHAPTER 2 VIOLENCE AND NON-VIOILENCE IN THE MONGOL CONQUEST OF BAGHDAD (1258)}}</ref>
The Mongol genocide of Muslims took place over decades. The Mongols slaughtered millions of Muslims and left survivors wishing they died as the amount of destruction and murder they inflicted astounded historians. The Mongols completely sacked, ruined and destroyed Harran, Khiva and Balkh, slaughtered 50,000 in Aleppo, 700,000 in Merv, 950,000 in Samarkand, 1,600,000 in Herat, 1,600,000 in Baghdad and 1,747,00 in Nishapur. The Mongols turned cities of culture, commerce and education into slaughter fields and burned Islamic libraries which contained 500 years of works. Mongols raped and assaulted chaste and modest Muslim women and coloured the Euphrates and Tigris rivers with blood as they sacked Baghdad for six weeks. It was the Khwarezm Muslim Shah Muhammad Khwarizm Shah who triggered Genghis Khan's genocide of Muslims after he executed Mongol caravans and an diplomatic delegation resulting in Genghis and the Mongols killing millions of Muslims started in 1218. The Mongols invaded to Moscow, Budapest, towards Delhi, the Persian Gulf and Central Asia from Mongolia. A proverb in Arabic said "if sometime tells you the Mongols have suffered a defeat, don't believe him". Up to 100 Muslims were killed by a single Mongol at a time since they didn't dare raise arms against the Mongols.<ref>{{cite web |last1=JAFRY |first1=JAWAD |title=When the Light of Islam Almost Vanished |url=https://www.islamicity.org/3184/when-the-light-of-islam-almost-vanished/ |website=IslamiCity |publisher=YOUNG MUSLIMS CANADA |date=NOV 1, 2015}}</ref>
The Mongols in Kuhistan (Tun) slaughtered 12,000, killed 70,0000 in Balhaq and Sabzavar, 70,0000 in Nasa which were small towns, while in the bigger cities they killed 800,000 according to Hamd Allah Qazvini in Baghdad and 1,600,000 in 1222 in Herat when the Mongols sacked it a second time, and 1,300,000 by Juvaini's account in Marv while Ibn al-Athir claims 700,000 were killed in the same city. 1,747,000 were slaughtered in 1220 at Nishapur according to Persian and Arab sources. The Mongols depopulated formerly heavily populated regions, causing people to flee, taking others into captivity and slavery and massacring many in the countrysides and towns. The Mongols greatly reduced the population of the Islamic world. Hamd Allah Qazvini said of the Islamic world that it was a ''"ruin as a result of the irruption of the Mongols and the general massacre of the people which took place in their days...Further there can be no doubt that even if for a thousand years to come no evil befalls the country, yet will it not be possible to complete repair the damage, and bring back the land to the state in which it was formerly."''<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Fisher |editor1-first=William Bayne |editor2-last=Boyle |editor2-first=John Andrew |editor3-last=Gershevitch |editor3-first=Ilya |editor4-last=Yarshater |editor4-first=Ehsan |editor5-last=Frye |editor5-first=Richard Nelson |editor6-last=Avery |editor6-first=Peter |editor7-last=Jackson |editor7-first=Peter |title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5 |date=1968 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=052106936X |page=485 |edition=illustrated, reprint, reissue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA485&lpg=PA485&dq=%22Describing+massacres+in+the+lesser+towns,+the+sources+give+smaller+figures%22&source=bl&ots=1MdibOTm6V&sig=ACfU3U0s4CaBo54D24toBhQ7NR1dzoNlZA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiPlqnVlvDwAhVoQt8KHU8LBpYQ6AEwAHoECAUQAw#v=onepage&q=%22Describing%20massacres%20in%20the%20lesser%20towns%2C%20the%20sources%20give%20smaller%20figures%22&f=false |chapter=CHAPTER 6 THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION OF IRAN UNDER THE ĪL-ḴH̱ĀNS THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE MONGOL INVASION}}</ref> The Mongols seized the region of Iranian Azarbayjan under [[Chormaqan]] and besieged Isfahan, taking it over after fighting between Shafi'i and Hanafi factions in the city which resulted in Shafi'is defecting to the Mongols and killing the Hanafis. The Mongols then reneged on their agreement to spare the Shafi'is and killed both them and the Hanafis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Woods |first1=John E. |title=A Note on the Mongol Capture of Iṣfahān |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=49–51. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/544126?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents |access-date=30 May 2021.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Ibn Abi al-Hadid |title=Sharh Nahj al-Balagha |date=(ca. 1255) |url=https://twitter.com/Ballandalus/status/606606898490712064}}</ref><ref> https://twitter.com/bdaiwi_historia/status/1167886310641586176</ref><ref> https://twitter.com/FikrAlJabarti/status/1204595733845950464</ref>
Hulagu's army against Baghdad included Christians, 1,000 Chinese engineers, siege engines, cavalry, astrologers, conspirators and spies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Edwin |title=Banking on Baghdad: Inside Iraq's 7,000-year History of War, Profit, and Conflict |date=2021 |page=44 |publisher=Dialog Press |isbn=0914153579 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4coEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT71&lpg=PT71&dq=%22gladly+reinforced+with+Christian+contingents%22&source=bl&ots=CA7LNVYVMg&sig=ACfU3U0WlfQtRBlQUksi1xOjCFI79Vb72w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjL5cemgIfxAhWAFVkFHQoXD7gQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22gladly%20reinforced%20with%20Christian%20contingents%22&f=false |archive-url=https://www.scribd.com/document/350388315/Banking-on-Baghdad-Inside-Iraq-s-7-000-Year-History-of-War-Profit-And-Conflict |archive-date=2021 |archive-url2=https://www.scribd.com/document/213858739/Wiley-Banking-on-Baghdad-Inside-Iraqa-s-7-000-Year-History-of-War-Profit-and-Conflict-2004| archive-date2=2021 |archive-url3=https://epdf.pub/banking-on-baghdad-inside-iraqs-7000-year-history-of-war-profit-and-conflict.html|archive-date3=2021|archive-url4=https://epdf.pub/banking-on-baghdad-inside-iraqs-7000-year-history-of-war-profit-and-conflictd71e83d223b89d37b3bbc1bb1e8d51d557137.html|archive-date=2021}}</ref>
1,000 Chinese artillery experts, Georgian Christians, Antiochian Frankish Christians and Armenian Christians participated in the attack against Baghdad alongside Oirats, Kitbuqa, Chinese general Guo Kan and Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trawinski |first1=Allan |title=The Clash of Civilizations |date=2017 |publisher=Page Publishing Inc |isbn=1635687128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2glDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT204&lpg=PT204&dq=%22seeking+revenge+on+the+islamic+abbasids+for+the+sacking+of+their+capital%22&source=bl&ots=UQfP-eCNR0&sig=ACfU3U1x1zoGXz040knF48ejv3gyGUeISQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwilj56ygIfxAhWwMlkFHf3rBEUQ6AEwAHoECAQQAw#v=onepage&q=%22seeking%20revenge%20on%20the%20islamic%20abbasids%20for%20the%20sacking%20of%20their%20capital%22&f=false}}</ref> Guo Kan was listed as part of China's 26 military heroes by President Yuan Shikai and he was one of the chief leading officers assaulting Baghdad under Hulagu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goodrich |first=Luther Carrington |author-link= |date=2002 |title=A Short History of the Chinese People |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BZf_L1V7NLUC&pg=PA173&lpg=PA173&dq=%22principal+generals+in+his+successful+attack+against+the+caliphate+of+Baghdad+was%22&source=bl&ots=RdXBLDKH72&sig=ACfU3U0sxW5ejbwSh9MPAFq9f-c8HntbjQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj5pJH4s_DyAhXNZd8KHZBXBxgQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=%22principal%20generals%20in%20his%20successful%20attack%20against%20the%20caliphate%20of%20Baghdad%20was%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Courier Corporation|edition=illustrated, reprint |page=172 |isbn=048642488X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=RUSH |first=MORTIMER |author-link= |date=2017 |title=LOOT |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fN06DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA307&lpg=PA307&dq=%22principal+generals+in+his+successful+attack+against+the+caliphate+of+Baghdad+was%22&source=bl&ots=1YIaHq3-nd&sig=ACfU3U2qipCna7MxOBMEgwxP00Bzd-6gUQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj5pJH4s_DyAhXNZd8KHZBXBxgQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22principal%20generals%20in%20his%20successful%20attack%20against%20the%20caliphate%20of%20Baghdad%20was%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Lulu.com |edition=illustrated|page=307 |isbn=1387257986}}</ref> Guo Kan was educated and raised by another Han Chinese general Shi Tianze. He became a leader of a thousand while joining campaigns under Shi Tianze and Sube'etei. He became commanding officer of a hundred when he was 20. Hulagu ordered Guo Kan to besiege the Ismaili castle Maymundiz and he also took Mazandaran and Sultan Haiya surrendered to Guo Kan in Kalar (Wuli'er) Guo Kan participated in the siege of Baghdad, taking the eatern city, routing 70,000 Abbasid soldiers and using a floating bridge on the Tigris river since Baghdad had two parts, on the eastern and western banks. TheAbbsid caliph was unable to escape due to the floating bridge so he surrendered but his chancellor (dawadar) tried to escape but Guo Kan caught and beheaded him.<ref>{{cite book |last=HODOUS |first=FLORENCE |editor1-last=Biran|editor1-first=Michal |editor2-last=Brack|editor2-first=Jonathan |editor3-last=Fiaschetti|editor3-first=Francesca |author-link= |date=2020 |title=Along the Silk Roads in Mongol Eurasia: Generals, Merchants, and Intellectuals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8XhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31&lpg=PA31&dq=%22and+all+foreign+names+are+fitted+into+this+schema%22&source=bl&ots=xSAxzR9LRo&sig=ACfU3U3CtwmumNBgXJeS42fZAPovy8ibtw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjX66CPs_DyAhXBmOAKHaI8B5AQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22and%20all%20foreign%20names%20are%20fitted%20into%20this%20schema%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Univ of California Press |edition=annotated|page=30, 31, 33 |chapter=CHAPTER 1 Guo Kan Military Exchanges between China and the Middle East|isbn=0520298756}}</ref> The History of Yuan lists the names of the castles besieged by him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bretschneider |first=E. |author-link= |date=1876 |title=Notices of the Mediæval Geography and History of Central and Western Asia |volume=Volume 10 of Shanghai Literary and Scientific Society Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R98-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA202&lpg=PA202&dq=%22when+the+Mongols+first+invaded+Persia,+Dilem+was+in+possession+of+the%22&source=bl&ots=ioNTeMwASN&sig=ACfU3U2nLkD3kcaLgjxiqyx4fuFQO8P0Vw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjBlcOktPDyAhUvhuAKHZQYC-kQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=%22when%20the%20Mongols%20first%20invaded%20Persia%2C%20Dilem%20was%20in%20possession%20of%20the%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Trübner & Company |page=202 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date=1876 |title=Journal of the Shanghai Literary and Scientific Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQRy7yus3HYC&pg=PA276&lpg=PA276&dq=%22when+the+Mongols+first+invaded+Persia,+Dilem+was+in+possession+of+the%22&source=bl&ots=jYdEkUaiIn&sig=ACfU3U28el4vDVHWnO9elD0vpmtyL_qZ8A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjBlcOktPDyAhUvhuAKHZQYC-kQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=%22when%20the%20Mongols%20first%20invaded%20Persia%2C%20Dilem%20was%20in%20possession%20of%20the%22&f=false |location= |publisher=North China Herald |page=276 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |others=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North-China Branch |date=1876 |title=Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcNFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA276&lpg=PA276&dq=%22when+the+Mongols+first+invaded+Persia,+Dilem+was+in+possession+of+the%22&source=bl&ots=gqXLyePVSO&sig=ACfU3U3BDcafMgQlPtxi8r2RK1FTcffHNw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjBlcOktPDyAhUvhuAKHZQYC-kQ6AF6BAgEEAM#v=onepage&q=%22when%20the%20Mongols%20first%20invaded%20Persia%2C%20Dilem%20was%20in%20possession%20of%20the%22&f=false |location= |publisher=The Branch |page=276 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bretschneider |first= E. |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century: Volume II, Volume 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQT_AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA108&lpg=PA108&dq=%22when+the+Mongols+first+invaded+Persia,+Dilem+was+in+possession+of+the%22&source=bl&ots=W_Ihhxuj4L&sig=ACfU3U3ILi9GawepN4dMTHZf1OJedPd-VA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjBlcOktPDyAhUvhuAKHZQYC-kQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22when%20the%20Mongols%20first%20invaded%20Persia%2C%20Dilem%20was%20in%20possession%20of%20the%22&f=false |location= |publisher= Routledge|page=108 |isbn=1136380566 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/medievalresearc00bretgoog/page/n126/mode/2up|archive-date=2009-12-26 |archive-url2=https://archive.org/details/MediaevalResearchesVolII/page/n117/mode/2up|archive-date2= 2003-07-01|archive-url3=https://archive.org/details/mediaevalresearc02bretuoft/page/108/mode/2up|archive-date3= 2008-04-03 |archive-url4=https://archive.org/details/medivalresearche02bret/page/108/mode/2up |archive-date4=2011-07-30 |archive-url5=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532856/page/n127/mode/2up |archive-date5=2017-01-24 |archive-url6=https://archive.org/details/medivalresearche02bret_0/page/108/mode/2up |archive-date6=2017-03-15}}</ref>
The Christian Armenian Kirakos of Ganja rejoined at the defeat of Baghdad and said “''Five hundred and fifteen years had passed since the founding of this city. Throughout its supremacy, like an insatiable leech, it had swallowed up the entire world. Now it restored all that had been taken. It was punished for the blood it had shed and the evil it had done; the measure of its iniquity was full. The Muslim tyranny had lasted 647 years''" as churches and Christians were not harmed but tombs, mosques and Sunnis were slaughtered.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kohn |first=Michael |author-link= |date=2006 |title=Dateline Mongolia: An American Journalist in Nomad's Land|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UnWOmL1a48C&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=%22until+an+american+named+paul+bremer+took+control%22&source=bl&ots=QP3N1UQwAx&sig=ACfU3U04wWR1ozokvg0qCd0OaHQrhQRZ6Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinw8zBqvDyAhVjFlkFHXdbBngQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22until%20an%20american%20named%20paul%20bremer%20took%20control%22&f=false |location= |publisher=RDR Books |edition=illustrated |page=30 |isbn=1571431551}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Weatherford |first=Jack |author-link= |date=2005 |title= Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8Y9B5uHQcAC&pg=PA183&dq=like+an+insatiable+leech,+it+had+swallowed+up+the+entire+world.+Now+it+restored+all+that+had+been+taken.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiK9ZnAyd31AhXPQfEDHdofCKkQ6AF6BAgHEAI |location= |publisher=Crown |page= |isbn=0307237818|quote=“Throughout its supremacy, like an insatiable leech it [Baghdad] had swallowed up the entire world. Now it restored all that had been taken.” Now Baghdad “was punished for the blood it had shed and the evil it had done; the measure of ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kohn |first= Michael |edition=illustrated|author-link= |date= 2006|title=Dateline Mongolia: An American Journalist in Nomad's Land |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UnWOmL1a48C&pg=PA30&dq=like+an+insatiable+leech,+it+had+swallowed+up+the+entire+world.+Now+it+restored+all+that+had+been+taken.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiK9ZnAyd31AhXPQfEDHdofCKkQ6AF6BAgGEAI |location= |publisher= RDR Books|page=30 |isbn=1571431551|quote=Throughout its supremacy , like an insatiable leech , it had swallowed up tire world . Now it restored all that had been taken . It was punished for the blood it had shed and the evil it had done ; the measure of its iniquity was full .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Boyle |first=John Andrew |others=Contributor Owen Lattimore|author-link= |date= 1977|title=The Mongol World Empire, 1206-1370 |edition=illustrated, reprint|volume=Volume 58 of Collected studies Volume 58 of Variorum reprint ; CS 58 Volume 58 of Variorum reprints: Collected studies series|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=61ptAAAAMAAJ&q=Kirakos+of+Ganja+baghdad&dq=Kirakos+of+Ganja+baghdad&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiG_9Le7tz1AhXUSvEDHajDBE8Q6AF6BAgFEAI|location= |publisher= Variorum Reprints|page= 131|isbn=0860780023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boyle |first1=John Andrew |last2= |first2= |date=Autumun 1961 |title=The Death of the Last 'Abasid Caliph: A Contemporary Muslim Account |url= http://web.archive.org/web/20220201033100/https://pdf.zlibcdn.com/dtoken/14cfc09993c53c5b012198fe4baf105c/jss/6.2.145.pdf|journal= Journal of Semitic Studies|volume= 6|issue= 2|pages=145-161 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref>
Claiming to revenge hundreds of years of abuse at the hands of the caliphate, the Georgians were among the most brutal soldiers during the massacre in Baghdad. The Han Chinese siege engineers used building foundations in suburbs outside the city in addition to palm tree stumps to pummel Baghdad.<ref>{{cite book |last=MIKABERIDZE |first=ALEXANDER|editor-last=Tucker |editor-first=Spencer C. |author-link= |date=2019 |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dm6pDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA182&lpg=PA182&dq=%22None+of+the+invaders+set+about+their+task+with+greater+relish+than+the+Georgian+contingent%22&source=bl&ots=Bx-GEWBLST&sig=ACfU3U31A6v1oDDe7H2vwGytbsLA2qvnFQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiW0favq_DyAhXKY98KHRjtBswQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22None%20of%20the%20invaders%20set%20about%20their%20task%20with%20greater%20relish%20than%20the%20Georgian%20contingent%22&f=false |location= |publisher=ABC-CLIO |edition=illustrated |page=182, 183 |chapter=Baghdad, 1258 Siege of |isbn=}1440853533}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |author-link= |date=2021 |title=Great Sieges in World History: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H94aEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=%22None+of+the+invaders+set+about+their+task+with+greater+relish+than+the+Georgian+contingent%22&source=bl&ots=ZPN-1NhWKX&sig=ACfU3U2yLbia9zUDcE10L9XeJ3CStje4lw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiW0favq_DyAhXKY98KHRjtBswQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=%22None%20of%20the%20invaders%20set%20about%20their%20task%20with%20greater%20relish%20than%20the%20Georgian%20contingent%22&f=false |location= |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=46 |isbn=1440868034}}</reff>
Persian towns from Baghdad to Alamut had their entire civilian populations systematically slaughtered by the Mongols. I. P. Petrushevsky said "This mass-killing was a complete system . . . and had as its goal the planned destruction of those elements of the population that were capable of resistance."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kassam |first1=Tazim R. |title=Songs of Wisdom and Circles of Dance: Hymns of the Satpanth Isma'ili Muslim Saint, Pir Shams |date=1995 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=0791425916 |page=70 |edition=illustrated |series=SUNY Series, Mcgill Studies in the History of Religions, a Series Devoted to International Scholarship Series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MPyqMqiJYnkC&pg=PA70&lpg=PA70&dq=%22cruelty+of+the+Mongol+hordes+who+systematically+exterminated+civilian+populations+in+Persian+towns+along+their+march%22&source=bl&ots=Ua7vJYbNO6&sig=ACfU3U1Q97nUW7nkpIRSTyyHeL-2GtX-LQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwio577AgIfxAhU2ElkFHV10AqcQ6AEwAHoECAcQAw#v=onepage&q=%22cruelty%20of%20the%20Mongol%20hordes%20who%20systematically%20exterminated%20civilian%20populations%20in%20Persian%20towns%20along%20their%20march%22&f=false}}</ref> Alamut was attacked by the Mongols with Georgians and Armenians under King of Georgia David VII Ulu (ruled 1247-1270).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dashdondog |first=Bayarsaikhan |author-link= |date=2010 |title= The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335) |series=Armenian Research Center collection|volume=Volume 24 of Brill's Inner Asian Library|url=https://brill.com/previewpdf/book/9789004192119/B9789004192119-s007.xml |location= |publisher=PRILL |edition=illustrated, reprint |page=122 |isbn= 9004186352|chapter=CHAPTER FIVE MONGOLARMENIAN MILITARY COOPERATION: STAGE I: THE CONQUEST OF THE MIDDLE EAST 12581260}}</ref> A Chinese siege weapon built by Chinese engineers called an ox-bow that show bolts with burning shafts was described by Juavaini at Alamut.<ref>{{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |author-link= |date=2013 |title=The Mongol Conquests in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRIt9sZaTREC&pg=PA147&lpg=PA147&dq=%22at+face+value+it+could+mean+gunpowder+weapons,+particularly+incendiary+ones%22&source=bl&ots=hB7Ww_H8tb&sig=ACfU3U2A8wG9aX9ZqThlpYwssSdhIZse4g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3xcmRtPDyAhUIUt8KHevQCCQQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22at%20face%20value%20it%20could%20mean%20gunpowder%20weapons%2C%20particularly%20incendiary%20ones%22&f=false |location= |publisher= Reaktion Books|page=147 |isbn=1861899718}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dashdondog |first1=Bayarsaikhan |last2= |first2= |date=2011 |title=The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335) |url=https://jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w8h10n |journal= |volume= |publisher=Brill|issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date=}}</ref>
A Twelver Shia minister defected from the Abbasids to the Mongols against the Abbasid Sunni caliph.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cavendish |first1=Richard |title=Baghdad Sacked by the Mongols |journal=History Today |date=February 2008 |volume=58 |issue=2 |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/baghdad-sacked-mongols}}</ref> Twelver Shia scholars defected to the Mongols and encouraged them to attack Abbasid Sunni Baghdad telling them their Imam Ali predicted the Mongol victory against the Sunnis. Twelver Shia were spared from the slaughter when the people of Baghdad were slaughtered by Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hasan |first1=Masudul |title=History of Islam: Classical period, 1206-1900 C.E |date=1998 |publisher=Adam Publishers & Distributers |volume=Volume 2 of History of Islam |page=11 |edition=revised |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFMkAQAAIAAJ&q=%22There+appears+to+be+some+truth+in+this+allegation+for+when+the+Mongols+massacred+the+citizens+of+Baghdad,+the+Shias+were+spared.%22&dq=%22There+appears+to+be+some+truth+in+this+allegation+for+when+the+Mongols+massacred+the+citizens+of+Baghdad,+the+Shias+were+spared.%22&hl=en&newbks=1}}</ref> The Twelver Shia town of al-Hilla was spared from sacking by the Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman |first1=Newman Andrew J. |title=Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722 |date=2013 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=0748631909 |page=123 |edition=illustrated |series=The New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TW8xEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=%22before+he+invaded+Baghdad+and+to+have+recounted+to+the+Mongol+conqueror+a+prophecy+of+Imam+Ali+that+%22&source=bl&ots=mmZudDiVPZ&sig=ACfU3U0VLMR2pKIZe4ebs8LSJ-FUkRs9cg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjt6_TZ-YjxAhXtRt8KHXbbCvgQ6AEwAHoECAUQAw#v=onepage&q=%22before%20he%20invaded%20Baghdad%20and%20to%20have%20recounted%20to%20the%20Mongol%20conqueror%20a%20prophecy%20of%20Imam%20Ali%20that%20%22&f=false|archive-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=the+survival+and,+thus+the+subsequent+rise+in+fortunes+of+al-hilla+in+the+aftermath+of+the+fall+of&source=bl&ots=m3Q6iAR-pW&sig=ACfU3U2ORB0yGAXpoRRTX7Q3CEaSyx3lrg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj2pc-N-ojxAhVITd8KHcy0DsQQ6AEwAnoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=the%20survival%20and%2C%20thus%20the%20subsequent%20rise%20in%20fortunes%20of%20al-hilla%20in%20the%20aftermath%20of%20the%20fall%20of&f=false|archive-date=2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=SAMRIReports2 |title=Oc |url=https://twitter.com/SReports2/status/1317246755881308160 |website=TWitter |date=Oct 17, 2020 |quote=#Shia cleric Ali Raza Rizvi: Allama Hilli said that Imam Ali had predicted Mongol attack on Baghdad and asked Shias not to resist the attackers. Hence Sheikh Tusi met Hulagu Khan and sought permission to take Shia books from Baghdad to Najaf.}}</ref>
The Twelver Shia [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] is said to have persuaded Hulagu to destroy Sunni Baghdad.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hetherington |first1=Edith W. |last2=Hetherington |first2=Norriss S. |series=Greenwood Guides to the Universe |title=Astronomy and Culture |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=0313345376 |page=62 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu8UBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62&dq=tusi+sunni+shia+hulagu+baghdad&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=tusi%20sunni%20shia%20hulagu%20baghdad&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hetherington |first1=Norriss S. |title=Planetary Motions: A Historical Perspective |date=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=031333241X |page=77 |edition=illustrated, annotated |series=Greenwood guides to great ideas in science |ISSN=1559-5374 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9d-pEnKsLUC&pg=PA77&dq=tusi+sunni+shia+hulagu+baghdad&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=tusi%20sunni%20shia%20hulagu%20baghdad&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bayat |first1=Mangol |title=Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligious Thought in Qajar Iran |date=2000 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |series=Modern Intellectual and Political History of the Middle East |isbn=0815628536 |page=17 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5A90fE_96ToC&pg=PA17&dq=tusi+sunni+shia+hulagu+baghdad&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=tusi%20sunni%20shia%20hulagu%20baghdad&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Amayreh |first1=Khalid |title=My Story with the Shiites: Major Contradictions in the Shiite Imami Religion |date=2017 |publisher=Strategic Book Publishing & Rights Agency |isbn=1681819635 |page=155 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvAxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155&dq=tusi+sunni+shia+hulagu+baghdad&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=tusi%20sunni%20shia%20hulagu%20baghdad&f=false}}</ref>
The Twelver Shia of Hillah greeted Hulagu's brother in law and told Hulagu that Imam Ali predicted Hulagu's conquest of Iraq. The Mongols were helped by the Twelver Shias against the Sunnis. The Christians and Twelver Shias may have pressured Hulagu to executed the Sunni Abbasid caliph.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coke |first1=Richard |title=Baghdad, the City of Peace |date=1935 |publisher=Butterworth |page=149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?newbks=1&id=JmFtAAAAMAAJ&dq=to+Hulagu+begging+that+the+carnage+might+cease+%2C+and+the+Mongol+leader+was+pleased+to+grant+this+privilege+.+But+the+final+ruin+of+the+city+was+accomplished+by+a+great+conflagration+%2C+which+%2C+spreading+rapidly+in+the+general+disorganization+%2C+damaged+all+the+leading+buildings+and+destroyed+not+a+few+.+...+There+is+some+evidence+to+show+that+pressure+was+brought+to+bear+upon+him+from+Shiah+and+Christian+quarters%2C+to+put+the+fallen+monarch+to+death.+The+Shiahs+had+done+all+they+could+throughout+to+assist+the+Mongols+in+their+campaign.+During+the+siege+%2C+the+Shiahs+of+Hillah+sent+a+deputation+with+a+message+to+Hulagu+that+%2C+according+to+a+tradition+of+theirs+handed+down+from+the+Imam+Ali+%2C+the+Mongols+were+destined+to+conquer+Iraq+.+Hulagu+sent+his+brother+-+in+-+law+back+with+the+deputation+%2C+and+the+people+of+Hillah+came+out+to+meet+him+with+a+public+greeting+.+At+their+request+%2C+a+...&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22There+is+some+evidence+to+show+that+pressure+was+brought+to+bear+upon+him+from+Shiah+and+Christian+quarters%2C+to+put+the+fallen+monarch+to+death.+The+Shiahs+had+done+all+they+could+throughout+to+assist+the+Mongols+in+their+campaign.+During+the+siege+%2C+the+Shiahs+of+Hillah+sent+a+deputation+with+a+message+to+Hulagu+that+%2C+according+to+a+tradition+of+theirs+handed+down+from+the+Imam+Ali+%2C+the+Mongols+were+destined+to+conquer+Iraq+.+Hulagu+sent+his+brother+-+in+-+law+back+with+the+deputation+%2C+and+the+people+of+Hillah+came+out+to+meet+him+with+a+public+greeting+.+At+their+request+%2C+a+.%22}}</ref> The father of [[Allamah Al-Hilli]] delivered the Twelver Shia message to Hulagu welcoming him and telling them he was their awaited saviour come to destroy the Abbasid Sunnis.<ref>{{cite book |last1=الكرباسي |first1=محمّد صادق محمّد |title=تاريخ المراقد (الحسين واهل بيته وانصاره) - الجزء الثاني: دائرة المعارف الحسينية |date=2002 |publisher=Mohammad Sadiq Al-Karbassi - Hussaini Centre for Research - London |isbn=1902490258 |page=33 |edition=illustrated |volume=Volume 2 of دائرة المعارف الحسينية - Hussaini Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tKMHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT32&dq=%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A+%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%20%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%20%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88&f=false|archive-url=https://www.holykarbala.net/v2/index.php/ar/المكتبة-الاسلامية/page/838|archive-date=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=الکرباسي |first1=آية الله الدکتور الشیخ محمّد صادق محمّد |title=تاريخ المراقد: الحسين وأهل بيته وأنصاره - الجزء الثاني: دائرة المعارف الحسينية |date=2003 |publisher=Mohammad Sadiq Al-Karbassi - Hussaini Centre for Research - London |page=33 |series=Hussaini Encyclopedia - دائرة المعارف الحسينية |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-UWHAxGlu4C&pg=PT33&dq=%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A+%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88&hl=en&newbks=1#v=onepage&q=%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%20%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%20%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Baḥrānī بحراني، |first1=ʻAbd al-ʻAẓīm al-Muhtadī , عبد العظيم المهتدي |title=قصص وخواطر من أخلاقيات علماء الدين |date=1996 |publisher=دار الخليج العربي،, |page=439 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PjWAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A+%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88&dq=%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A+%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88&hl=en&newbks=1}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ghazan&action=edit§ion=6
Baidu and Ghazan were challenging each other for the throne of the Ilkhanate. The Mongol Baydu (Baidu) had the support of Christians and Shamanists while Ghazan had the support of the pro-Muslim faction. The Mongol Qutlugh-Shah Noyan disapproved of the choice of converting to Islam saying that the "religion of the Arabs" was divided into 70 odd sects and that the two madhhabs that had a choice of converting too allowed having sex with a sister and mother or a daughter.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Fitzherbert |first=Teresa |volume=I |date=2001 |pages=61, 62 |title=Bal'ami's Tabari" An Mustrated manuscript of Bal'ami's Taýamaýy, '7a? ikh-z Tabdii in the Freer GaUery of Art, Washington (F59. r6,47-ig and 30-21) |type= Doctor of PHosophy|chapter= |publisher=University of Edinburgh |docket= |oclc= |url=https://era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/6977/1/506389_VOL1.pdf |access-date=}}
</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yahballaha_III&action=edit§ion=1
Yahaballa was an Ongud.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Borbone |first1=Pier Giorgio |editor1-last=Parodi |editor1-first=Laura E. |title=History of Mar Yahballaha and Rabban Sauma: Edited, translated, and annotated by Pier Giorgio Borbone |date=2021 |publisher=tredition, |isbn=3749712980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MvAWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT289&lpg=PT289&dq=%22based+on+the+details+given+about+his+native+region,+Mark%22%22&source=bl&ots=AolyJV8_BF&sig=ACfU3U1Ql8T1yhbwA-rrEoErFLqaPZprMg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwih8Zi2-ojxAhVjhuAKHQDiDpcQ6AEwAHoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=%22based%20on%20the%20details%20given%20about%20his%20native%20region%2C%20Mark%22%22&f=false}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=17
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)&action=edit§ion=1
The ethnic [[Georgian]] [[Mamluks]] who ruled over Iraq in the [[Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)|Mamluk dynasty]] committed robbery and rape against the Iraqi population they ruled over.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rush |first1=Alan |title=Historical Notes: Rape, pillage and slaughter in Baghdad |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/historical-notes-rape-pillage-and-slaughter-in-baghdad-1194023.html |agency=The Independent |date=Sunday 23 October 2011}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Damascus_(1400)&action=edit§ion=2
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=17
Timur's soldiers seized females in Damascus for rape as they engaged in qatl-i 'amm for three days.<ref>{{cite book |last=IBN ‘ARABSHAH |first=AHMAD |others=J.H. SANDERS |date= 2018|title=Tamerlane: The Life of the Great Amir |url=https://dokumen.pub/tamerlane-the-life-of-the-great-amir-9781350988385-9781838609221.html |edition=new |publisher= I.B.Tauris & Co|page= xviii|isbn=9781350988385}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Damascus_(1400)&action=edit§ion=2
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sack_of_Aleppo_(1400)&action=edit§ion=1
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=17
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genocidal_rape&action=edit§ion=3
Timur ordered his soldiers to commit rape against Syrian Muslim women in Aleppo, Hama and Damascus when he sacked all three cities.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ibn Taghribirdi |date= |title=النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة|url=https://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/taghri1.htm |chapter=The Invasion of Syria by Tamerlane (1400-1) and Ibn Taghri Birdi's description of the life of Tamerlane }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=جمال الدين أبو المحاسن يوسف بن تغري بردي |title= النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة |url= https://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_1485.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=جمال الدين أبو المحاسن يوسف بن تغري بردي|title= النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة |url=http://www.al-eman.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A9%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%20%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A9%20**/%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9%20/i51&d54302&c&p1 |location= |publisher= |page=187 من 272 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marozzi |first= Justin |date= 2012|title= Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World|url=https://erenow.net/biographies/tamerlane-sword-of-islam-conqueror-of-the-world/1.php |chapter=1 Beginnings on the Steppe 1336–1370 |publisher= HarperCollins Publishers|page=2 |isbn=9780007369737}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marozzi |first= Justin |date= 2012|title= Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World|url=https://erenow.net/biographies/tamerlane-sword-of-islam-conqueror-of-the-world/8.php |chapter=8 ‘This Pilgrimage of Destruction’ 1399–1401 |publisher= HarperCollins Publishers|page=2 |isbn=9780007369737}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title= تيمورلنك يدمر مدينة دمشق ويذبح أهلها .|encyclopedia= الموسوعة التاريخية |url=https://dorar.net/history/event/3239 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=9/1/2012 |title=استمرار دعم مهمة المراقبين العرب في سوريا |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220529023834/https://syrianoor.net/article/1724 |publisher= syrianoor}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=رباط |first=ناصر |date= Aug 16, 2011|title= تيمورلنك في سورية|url=https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/24321 |magazine=jadaliyya }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Antrim |first=Zayde |date= Jan 7, 2013|title=Tamerlane in Damascus |url= ttps://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/27775|magazine=jadaliyya}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= شعبان أيوب |first= محمد |date=29/5/2020 |title=حين سقطت دمشق على يد تيمورلنك |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/midan/intellect/history/2020/5/29/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%B3%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%AA-%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B4%D9%82-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%86%D9%83 |work=Al-Jazeera }}</ref>
{{blockquote|text=
{{lang|ar|فيما قيل ولم تمض غير ساعة حتى ولت العساكر الشامية منهزمة يريدون مدينة حلب، وركب أصحاب تيمور أقفيتهم، فهلك تحت حوافر الخيل من البشر ومن أهل حلب وغيرها من المشاة ما لا يدخل تحت حصر، فإن أهل حلب خرجوا منها لقتال تيمور، حتى النساء والصبيان، وازدحم الناس مع ذلك في دخولهم إلى أبواب المدينة، وداس بعضهم بعضاً، حتى صارت الرمم طول قامة، والناس تمشي من فوقها. وقصد نواب المماليك الشامية قلعة حلب وطلعوا إليها، فدخلها معهم خلائق من الحلبيين وكانوا قبل ذلك قد نقلوا إليها سائر أموال الناس بحلب.
هذا وقد اقتحم عساكر تيمور مدينة حلب في الحال، وأشعلوا فيها النيران وأخذوا في الأسر والنهب والقتل، فهرب سائر نساء البلد والأطفال إلى جامع حلب وبقية المساجد، فمال أصحاب تيمور عليهن، وربطوهن بالحبال أسرى ثم وضعوا السيف في الأطفال، فقتلوهم بأسرهم وشرعوا في تلك الأفعال القبيحة على عادتهم، وصارت الأبكار تفتض من غير تستر، والمخدرات يفسق فيهن من غير احتشام، بل يأخذ التتري الواحدة ويعلوها في المسجد والجامع بحضرة الجم الغفير من أصحابه ومن أهل حلب، فيراها أبوها وأخوها وزوجها وولدها ولا يقدر أن يدفع عنها لقلة مقدرته، ولشغله بنفسه بما هو فيه من العقوبة والعذاب، ثم ينزل عنها الواحد فيقوم لها آخر وهي مكشوفة العورة.
ثم بذلوا السيف في عامة حلب وأجنادها حتى امتلأت الجوامع والطرقات بالقتلى، وجافت حلب، واستمر هذا من ضحوة نهار السبت إلى أثناء يوم الثلاثاء رابع عشر ربيع الأول. هذا والقلعة في أشد ما يكون من الحصار والقتال، وقد نقبها عسكر تيمور من عدة أماكن، وردم خندقها ولم يبق إلا أن تؤخذ.
فتشاور النواب والأعيان الذين بالقلعة، فأجمعوا على طلب الأمان؛ فأرسلوا لتيمور بذلك، فطلب تيمور نزول بعض النواب إليه فنزل إليه دمرداش نائب حلب، فخلع عليه، ودفع إليه أماناً وخلعاً إلى النواب، وأرسل معه عدة وافرة من أصحابه إلى قلعة حلب، فطلعوا إليها وأخرجوا النواب منها بمن معهم من الأمراء والأعيان، وجعلوا كل اثنين في قيد، وأحضروا الجميع إلى تيمور وأوقفوا بين يديه فنظر إليهم طويلاً وهم وقوف بين يديه ورئيسهم سودون نائب الشام. ثم أخذ يقرعهم ويوبخهم ويلوم سودون نائب الشام في قتله لرسوله، ويكثر له من الوعيد. ثم دفع كل واحد منهم إلى من يحتفظ به.
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ثم سيقت إليه نساء حلب سبايا وأحضرت إليه الأموال والجواهر والآلات الفاخرة، ففرقها على أمرائه وأخصائه. واستمر النهب والسبي والقتل بحلب في كل يوم، مع قطع الأشجار وهدم البيوت وإحراق المساجد وجافت حلب وظواهرها من القتلى، بحيث صارت الأرض منهم فراشاً، لا يجد الشخص مكاناً يمشي عليه إلا وتحت رجليه رمة قتيل. وعمل تيمور من رؤوس المسلمين منابر عدة مرتفعة من الأرض نحو عشرة أذرع في دور عشرين ذراعاً، حسب ما فيها من رؤوس بني آدم فكان زيادة على عشرين ألف رأس، ولما بنيت جعلت الوجوه بارزة يراها من يمر بها.
ثم رحل تيمور من حلب بعد أن أقام بها شهراً، وتركها خاوية على عروشها، خالية من سكانها وأنيسها، قد خربت وتعطلت من الأذان والصلوات، وأصبحت خراباً يباباً مظلمة بالحريق موحشة قفراً، لا يأويها إلا البوم والرخم. وسار تيمور قاصداً جهة دمشق، فمر بمدينة حماة، وكان أخذها ابنه ميران شاه.
وكان من خبرها أن ميران شاه بن تيمور نزل عليها بكرة يوم الثلاثاء رابع عشر شهر ربيع الأول المذكور، وأحاط بها بعساكره، بعد أن نهب خارج مدينة حماة، وسبى النساء والأطفال، وأسر الرجال، واستمرت أيدي أصحابه يفعلون في النساء والأبكار تلك الأفعال القبيحة، وخربوا جميع ما هو خارج عن سور المدينة. هذا وقد استعد أهل حماة للقتال، وركب الناس سور المدينة، وامتنعوا من تسليم المدينة، وباتوا على ذلك فلما أصبحوا خادعهم ابن تيمور، ففتحوا له باباً من أبواب المدينة، ودخل ابن تيمور المذكور مدينة حماة ونادى بالأمان؛ فقدم الناس عليه، وقدموا له أنواع المطاعم، فقبلها منهم، وعزم أن يقيم رجلاً من أصحابه عليها، فقيل له: إن الأعيان قد خرجوا منها، فخرج إلى مخيمه وبات به.
ثم رحل يوم الخميس عنها ووعد الناس بخير؛ ومع ذلك فإن قلعة حماة لم يتسلمها، بل كانت امتنعت عليه.
فلما كان ليلة الجمعة نزل أهل القلعة وقتلوا من أصحاب ابن تيمور رجلين كان أقرهما بالمدينة، فلما بلغ ذلك ابن تيمور رجع إليها وآقتحم البلد، وأشعل النار بها، وأخذ أصحابه يقتلون ويأسرون وينهبون حتى صارت كمدينة حلب غير أنه كان رفق بأهل حلب، فإنه كان سأل قضاة حلب لما صاروا في أسره عن قتاله، ومن الشهيد. فأجاب محب الدين محمد بن محمد بن الشحنة الحنفي بأن قال: سئل رسول الله - صلى الله عليه وسلم - عن هذا، فقال: من قاتل لتكون كلمة الله هي العليا فهو الشهيد، فأعجبه ذلك، وحادثهم، فطلبوا منه أن يعفو عن أهل حلب، ولا يقتل أحداً؛ فأمنهم جميعاً وحلف لهم، فحصل بذلك بعض رفق بالنسبة إلى غيرهم.
وأما أهل دمشق، فإنه لما قدم عليهم الخبر بأخذ حلب، نودي في الناس بالرحيل من ظاهرها إلى داخل المدينة، والاستعداد لقتال العدو المخذول، فأخذوا في ذلك؛ فقدم عليهم المنهزمون من حماة، فعظم خوف أهلها، وهموا بالجلاء، فمنعوا من ذلك، ونودي: من سافر نهب، فعاد إليها من كان خرج منها وحصنت دمشق، ونصبت المجانيق على قلعة دمشق، ونصبت المكاحل على أسوار المدينة، واستعدوا للقتال استعداداً جيداً إلى الغاية.
ثم وصلت رسل تيمور إلى نائب الغيبة بدمشق ليتسلموا منه دمشق، فهم نائب الغيبة بالفرار، فرده العامة رداً قبيحا وصاح الناس وأجمعوا على الرحيل عنها، واستغاث النساء والصبيان، وخرجت النساء حاسرات لا يعرفن أين يذهبن، حتى نادى نائب الغيبة بالاستعداد.ٍٍٍ وقدم الخبر في أثناء ذلك بمجيء السلطان إلى البلاد الشامية، ففتر عزم الناس عن الخروج من دمشق ما لم يحضر السلطان.
وأما أمراء الديار المصرية فإنه لما كان ثامن عشر ضهر ربيع الأول، وهو بعد أخذ تيمور لمدينة حلب بسبعة أيام، فرقت الجماكي على المماليك السلطانية بسبب السفر.
ثم في عشرينه نودي على أجناد الحلقة بالقاهرة أن يكونوا في يوم الأربعاء ثاني عشرينه في بيت الأمير يشبك الشعباني الدوادار للعرض عليه.
ثم في خامس عشرينه ورد عليهم الخبر بأخذ تيمور مدينة حلب، وأنه يحاصر قلعتها، فكذبوا ذلك؛ وأمسك المخبر وحبس حتى يعاقب بعد ذلك على افترائه ووقع الشروع في النفقة، فأخذ كل مملوك ثلاثة آلاف وأربعمائة درهم.
ثم خرج الأمير سودون من زادة والأمير إينال حطب على الهجن في ليلة الأربعاء تاسع عشرينه لكشف هذا الخبر.
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ثم ركب الشيخ سراج الدين عمر البلقيني وقضاة القضاة والأمير آقباي الحاجب، ونودي بين أيديهم: الجهاد في سبيل الله تعالى لعدوكم الأكبر تيمورلنك، فإنه أخذ البلاد ووصل إلى حلب، وقتل الأطفال على صدور الأمهات، وأخرب الدور والجوامع والمساجد، وجعلها إسطبلات للمواشي؛ وإنه قاصدكم، يخرب بلادكم، ويقتل رجالكم؛ فاضطربت القاهرة لذلك، واشتد جزع الناس، وكثر بكاؤهم وصراخهم، وانطلقت الألسنة بالوقيعة في أعيان الدولة.
وأهل شهر ربيع الآخر، فلما كان ثالثه قدم الأمير أسنبغا الدوادار وأخبر بأخذ تيمور مدينة حلب وقلعتها بآتفاق دمرداش، وحكى ما نزل بأهل حلب من البلاء، وأنه قال لنائب الغيبة بدمشق يخفي بين الناس وبين الخروج من دمشق، فإن الأمر صعب، أو أن النائب لم يمكن أحداً من السير،. فخرج السلطان الملك الناصر من يومه من القاهرة ونزل بالريدانية بأمرائه وعساكره أو الخليفة، والقضاة، وتعين الأمير تمراز الناصري أمير مجلس في نيابة الغيبة بالديار المصرية وأقام بمصر من الأمراء الأمير جكم من عوض في عدة أخر، وأقام الأمير تمراز يعرض أجناد الحلقة، وفي تحصيل ألف فرس وألف جمل، وإرسال ذلك مع من يقع عليه الاختيار من أجناد الحلقة للسفر.
ثم رسم باستقرار الأمير أرسطاي من خجا على رأس نوبة النوب كان في نيابة الإسكندرية بعد موت نائبها فرج الحلبي. وكان أرسطاي منذ أفرج عنه بطالاً بالإسكندرية، فوردت عليه الولاية وهو بها. وأخذ الأمير تمراز في عرض أجناد الحلقة، وتحصيل الخيول والجمال وطلب العربان من الوجه القبلي والبحري لقتال تيمور، كل ذلك والسلطان بالريدانية.
ثم خرج الجاليش في بكرة يوم الجمعة ثامن شهر ربيع الآخر، وفيه من أكابر الأمراء مقدمي الألوف: الأتابك بيبرس، والأمير نوروز الحافظي رأس نوبة الأمراء، والأمير بكتمر الركني أمير سلاح، وآقباي حاجب الحجاب، ويلبغا الناصري، وإينال باي بن قجماس، وعدة أخر من أمراء الطبلخانات والعشرات.
ثم رحل السلطان ببقية الأمراء والعساكر من الريدانية يريد جهة الشام لقتال تيمورلنك، وسار حتى نزل بغزة في يوم عشرين من الشهر، واستدعى بالوالد وآقبغا الجمالي الأطروش نائب حلب كان من القدس، وأخلع على الوالد باستقراره في نيابة دمشق عوضاً عن سودون قريب الملك الظاهر برقوق بحكم أسره مع تيمور، وهذه ولاية الوالد على دمشق الأولى.
وخلع على الأمير آقبغا الجمالي الأطروش باستقراره في نيابة طرابلس عوضاً عن شيخ المحمودي بحكم أسره مع تيمور أيضاً، وعلى الأمير تمربغا المنجكي استقراره في نيابة صفد عوضاً عن ألطنبغا العثماني بحكم أسره، وعلى طولو من علي باشاه باستقراره في نيابة غزة عوضاً عن عمر بن الطحان، وعلى صدقة بن طويل باستقراره في نيابة القدس، وبعث الجميع إلى ممالكهم.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=Ibn Taghribirdi (ابن تغري بردي) |author-link= [[Ibn Taghribirdi]]|date= |title=النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة - ج 12 - 792 - 807 هـ |title-link=[[w:ar:النجوم الزاهرة|النجوم الزاهرة]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3pFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178&lpg=PT178&dq=%22%D9%88%D9%82%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%85+%D8%B9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1+%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9+%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%22&source=bl&ots=JslHjJB0OA&sig=ACfU3U1jcZ2t1HvPIQrU7dZ4ruTCoSu--w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjmppeciubyAhUIn-AKHS_kDwoQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=%22%D9%88%D9%82%D8%AF%20%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%85%20%D8%B9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B1%20%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%20%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9%20%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%22&f=false |location= |publisher=IslamKotob |page=179 (١٧٩) |chapter= سنة ٨٠٣ سلطنة الناصر فرج بن برقوق الأولى|isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=Ibn Taghribirdi/Jamal al-Din (ابن تغري بردي/جمال الدين)|author-link= |editor=Muhammad Hussein Shams ul-din (محمد حسين شمس الدين)|date=1992 |title=النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة 1-17 مع الفهارس ج12 |volume=Volume 12 of النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة 1-17 مع الفهارس|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvt7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178&lpg=PT178&dq=%22%D9%88%D9%82%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%85+%D8%B9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1+%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9+%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%22&source=bl&ots=8AJ4gm3Hmi&sig=ACfU3U3--JMt_yeJRkW0-gqwhUXieHCSyA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjmppeciubyAhUIn-AKHS_kDwoQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22%D9%88%D9%82%D8%AF%20%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%85%20%D8%B9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B1%20%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%20%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9%20%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية, 1992 |page=179 (١٧٩) |chapter= سنة ٨٠٣ سلطنة الناصر فرج بن برقوق الأولى|isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=تيمورلنك يغزو الشام - تاريخ أقباط مصر |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia - أنسكلوبيديا موسوعة تاريخ أقباط مصر - coptic history |date= |year= |last=اندراوس |first=عزت |publisher= |location=|page=Page 1484 |id= |url=https://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_1485.htm |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://tarikh.inoor.ir/fa/event/page/4I64F/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%81_%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7_%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%84%D9%86%DA%AF?rowNumber=1 |chapter=تصرف حلب توسط تیمور لنگ |last= |first= |date= |website= پایگاه جامع تاریخ|title=النجوم الزاهرة|publisher=p النجوم الزاهرة ، ج 12، ص 222 |access-date=|volume=ج 12،|page= ص 222 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=ابن تغري بردي|author-link=[[Ibn Taghribirdi]] |date= |title= النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة |url=http://www.islamport.com/b/4/tareekh/%DF%CA%C8%20%C7%E1%CA%C7%D1%ED%CE/%C7%E1%E4%CC%E6%E3%20%C7%E1%D2%C7%E5%D1%C9%20%DD%ED%20%E3%E1%E6%DF%20%E3%D5%D1%20%E6%C7%E1%DE%C7%E5%D1%C9/%C7%E1%E4%CC%E6%E3%20%C7%E1%D2%C7%E5%D1%C9%20%DD%ED%20%E3%E1%E6%DF%20%E3%D5%D1%20%E6%C7%E1%DE%C7%E5%D1%C9%20044.html |location= |publisher=صدر هذا الكتاب آليا بواسطة الموسوعة الشاملة |page=(3/395) |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=ابن تغري بردي|author-link=[[Ibn Taghribirdi]] |date= |title= النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة |url=http://islamport.com/d/3/tkh/1/56/991.html |location= |publisher=صدر هذا الكتاب آليا بواسطة الموسوعة الشاملة |page=(3/395) |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=ابن تغري بردي|author-link=[[Ibn Taghribirdi]] |date= |title= النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة |url=http://www.hasith.al-eman.com/aleman/library/books/b_51/p_5319/3833.html |archive-url=https://archive.is/KChk5 |archive-date=2021|location= |publisher= |page= |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=ابن تغري بردي|author-link=[[Ibn Taghribirdi]] |date= |title= النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة |url=http://www.islamilimleri.com/Kulliyat/Siyer/3Tarih/pg_036_0094.htm|location= |chapter=سنة 804،|publisher=İslam İlimleri |page=(12/223) (12/224) |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author=ابن تغري بردي|author-link=[[Ibn Taghribirdi]] |date= |title= النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة |url=http://origin.al-eman.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A9%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%20%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A9%20**/i51&n187&p1|location= |chapter=فصل: أمراء الديار المصرية|publisher=نداء الإيمان |page=187 من 272 |isbn=}}</ref>}}
Timur’s mass rapes in Aleppo on Syrian wome are cited as an example of genocide in “Genocide and International Justice”.
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{{lang|en|Only a short time passed before the Syrian forces turned in flight toward the city of Aleppo, with Tamerlane’s men in hot pursuit; and a countless number of the inhabitants of Aleppo and others who were on foot perished under the horses’ hoofs, for the citizens of Aleppo had gone out from the city to fight Tamerlane, even the women and boys; moreover, as they tried to enter through the city gates people crowded so closely together that they trampled upon one another; and corpses lay there man-high while crowds walked over them. The Syrian viceroys made for the Aleppo citadel and ascended to it, hordes of the inhabitants entering with them; they had previously transported to the Citadel all the property of the men of Aleppo. Tamerlane’s army had in the meanwhile immediately assaulted the city, lighted fires in it, and began to take prisoners, to plunder, and to kill. The women and children fled to the great mosque of Aleppo and to the smaller mosques, but Tamerlane’s men turned to follow them, bound the women with ropes as prisoners, and put the children to the sword, killing every one of them. They committed the shameful deeds to which they were accustomed; virgins were violated without concealment; gentlewomen were outraged without any restraints of modesty; a Tatar would seize a woman and ravage her in the great mosque or one of the smaller mosques in sight of the vast multitude of his companions and the people of the city; her father and brother and husband would see her plight and be unable to defend her because of their lack of means to do so and because they were distracted by the torture and torments
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International Documents which they themselves were suffering; the Tatar would then leave the women and another go to her, her body still uncovered. They then put the populace of Aleppo and its troops to the sword, until the mosques and streets were filled with dead, and Aleppo stank with corpses. This continued from the early forenoon of Saturday until the middle of Tuesday, I Rabi’ 14 [November 2]. In the meantime the citadel was being subjected to the closest siege and attack, for Tamerlane’s armies had mined its walls in a number of places and filled up its moat, so that it was all but captured. . . . The robbery, enslavement, and murder continued in Aleppo daily; trees were cut down, houses were ruined, and mosques were burned. The stench of corpses filled Aleppo and the environs; bodies lay on the ground, overspreading it like a carpet—one could step nowhere without finding dead bodies under his feet. Tamerlane constructed out of the heads of Muslims a number of pulpits about ten cubits in height and twenty in circumference; the human heads which they contained were counted and found to be more than 20,000; the structures were built with the heads protruding and seen by every passer-by. Tamerlane remained in Aleppo for a month, then departed; he left the city “fallen on its roofs,” empty of its inhabitants and every human being, reduced to ruins; the muezzin’s call and the prayer services were no longer heard; there was nought there but a desert waste darkened by fire, a lonely solitude where only the owl and the vulture took refuge. . . . The report of the capture of Aleppo by Tamerlane and his siege of the citadel arrived at Cairo, but it was not believed, and the bearer of the news was arrested and imprisoned awaiting future punishment on the charge of falsification. . . . [After the surrender of Damascus in March 1401, Tamerlane] seized Ibn Muflih and his companions and forced them to write down the names of all the quarters, squares, and streets of Damascus; when they had done so and given the lists to him, he distributed them among his emirs, dividing the city among them. The emirs entered the city with their mamluks and attendants, and each emir settled in his alloted section and then summoned its inhabitants and demanded money of them. At that time there came upon the people of Damascus afflictions beyond description: they were subjected to all sorts of tortures; they were bastinadoed, crushed in presses, scorched in flames, and suspended head down; their nostrils were stopped with rags full of fine dust which they inhaled each time they took a breath so that they almost died. When near to death, a man would be given a respite to recover, then the tortures of all kinds would be repeated, so that the sufferer would envy a companion who had perished under his tortures and would say: “Would that I might die and be at rest from my pain.” And in the meanwhile all his women and daughters and sons were divided among the companions of that emir, and while under torture he
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genocide and international justice would see his wife and daughter ravished and his son defiled; as he cried out in the pain of his torture the boy and girl would cry out in the suffering of their violation. All this took place without any concealment, in broad daylight and in the presence of crowds of people. Indeed, the people of Damascus witnessed tortures of kinds that had never been heard of before. For example, they would take a man and tie a rope around his head, and twist it until it would sink into his flesh; they would put a rope around a man’s shoulders, and twist it with a stick until they were torn from their sockets; they would bind another victim’s thumbs behind him, then throw him on his back, pour powdered ashes in his nostrils to make him little by little confess what he possessed; when he had given up all, he would still not be believed, but the torture would be repeated until he died; and then his body would be further mutilated in the thought that he might be only feigning death, And some would tie their victim by his thumbs to the roof of the house, kindle a fire under him and keep him thus a long time; if by chance he fell in the flames, he would be dragged out and thrown on the ground till he revived, then he would be thus suspended a second time. These trials and tortures of the people of Damascus continued for nineteen days, the last being Tuesday, Rajab 28, 803 [March 14, 1401] There perished, during this period of torture and hunger, human beings whose number God (Who is exalted) alone knows. When Tamerlane’s emirs knew that nothing was left in the city they went to him, and he asked them: “Have you any more concern with Damascus?” And when they said “No,” he granted the city to the followers of the emirs, who entered it on foot on Monday, Rajab 30, with swords drawn from their sheaths. They stole whatever they could lay their hands on, household furniture, etc., took captive all the women of the city, and drove before them, bound with ropes, the men and boys, leaving only the children less than five years old. They then set fire to the dwellings, palaces, and mosques, and as it was a day of high winds the fire spread throughout the city, and the flames almost mounted to the clouds. The fire continued burning for three days and three nights, the last of which was Friday. Tamerlane (may God curse him) departed from Damascus on Saturday Sha’ban 3 [March 19, 1401], having been there 80 days. The whole city had burned, the roofs of the Umayyad Mosque had fallen in because of the fire, its gates were gone, and the marble cracked—nothing was left standing but the walls. Of the other mosques of the city, its palaces, caravanseries, and baths, nothing remained but wasted ruins and empty traces; only a vast number of young children were left there, who died, or were destined to die, of hunger.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Ross |title=Aleppo: A History |date=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=1134844018 |page=189 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jz4lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=%22A+tatar+would+seize+a+woman+and+ravage+her+in+the+Great+Mosque+or+one+of+the+smaller+mosques+in+sight+of+the+vast+multitude%22&source=bl&ots=je-gXLB4Eb&sig=ACfU3U2IoJ-Ty7dIdcxddFpzCdj78aslaA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZ78_j76bvAhVkMlkFHQWvAKQQ6AEwAHoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=%22A%20tatar%20would%20seize%20a%20woman%20and%20ravage%20her%20in%20the%20Great%20Mosque%20or%20one%20of%20the%20smaller%20mosques%20in%20sight%20of%20the%20vast%20multitude%22&f=false |series=Cities of the Ancient World}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Frey |first1=Rebecca Joyce |title=Genocide and International Justice |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=0816073104 |page=188 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m569AfPJkB4C&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=%22A+tatar+would+seize+a+woman+and+ravage+her+in+the+Great+Mosque+or+one+of+the+smaller+mosques+in+sight+of+the+vast+multitude%22&source=bl&ots=S-rbbeLZlw&sig=ACfU3U2cStcw8NLgqMpkRm7y7DT6zI1mdQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZ78_j76bvAhVkMlkFHQWvAKQQ6AEwAXoECAEQAw#v=onepage&q&f=false |series=Global Issues - Facts On File |archive-url=https://epdf.pub/genocide-and-international-justice.html |archive-date=2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/taghri1.htm |title=The Invasion of Syria by Tamerlane (1400-1) and Ibn Taghri Birdi's description of the life of Tamerlane |last= |first= |date= |website=De Re Militari » The Society for Medieval Military History |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dar.aucegypt.edu/bitstream/handle/10526/4782/2.docx?sequence=1 |title=The Question of Islamophobia and Marlowe's Tamburlaine the Great|last=Al-Abboud |first=D |date= |website=[[American University of Cairo]] |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>
|multiline=yes
|author=[[Ibn Taghribirdi]]
|title=Al-Nujūm al-Zāhirah fī Mulūk Miṣr wa-al-Qāhirah (النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة)
}}
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=17
The Turkic [[Khwarazmian army between 1231 and 1246]] committed rape against Syrian Muslim women in Manbij and around Aleppo in the Ayyubid Emirate of Aleppo in 1241 that was compared to the later rape Mongols (Tatars) committed against Muslim women.<ref>{{cite book |last=الطبّاخ الحلبي |first=محمد راغب بن محمود بن هاشم |editor-last=كمال|editor-first=محمّد |date= |title= إعلام النبلاء بتاريخ حلب الشهباء |volume=ج ٢ |url= https://books.rafed.net/view.php?type=c_fbook&b_id=2354&page=217 |chapter=ذكر عيث الخوارزمية في البلاد الحلبية والقتال بينهما|location= حلب|publisher= منشورات دار القلم العربي|page=٢١٠ }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Abulfeda| |date= 329|title= تاريخ أبي الفداء|url= http://www.al-eman.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%20%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A1%20**/%20%D8%B0%D9%83%D8%B1%20%D9%88%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1%20%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87%20/i82&d63184&c&p1|chapter= ثم دخلت سنة ثمـان وثلاثيـن وستمائـة|location=Hama |page= 64 من 86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author= Abulfeda|date= |title=تاريخ أبي الفداء |url=https://al-hakawati.net/Books/BookDetails/14557/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B5%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1 |chapter=الفصل الثامن: خلافة المستنصر المختصر في أخبار البشر ذكر وفاة صاحب ماردين|location=Hama }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= al-Maqrizi|date= |title= السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك|url=http://islamicbook.ws/tarekh/alslwk-002.html |chapter=سنة ثمان وثلاثين وستمائة}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Jackson|first=Peter |date=2017 |title=The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiOMDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA166&lpg=PA166&dq=%22W%C4%81%E1%B9%A3il+viewed+the+abominations+(faw%C4%81%E1%B8%A5ish)+they+perpetrated+against+the+Muslims%27+womenfolk%22&source=bl&ots=1NaVlmIVbH&sig=ACfU3U1WY2NG0IVoRzP1qWYjD0EHvBuOvQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjvl-Kpwq-AAxX_8DgGHVlTAHMQ6AF6BAgJEAM |edition=unabridged |publisher= Yale University Press|page=166 |isbn=0300227280}}</ref>https://dokumen.pub/the-mongols-and-the-islamic-world-from-conquest-to-conversion-9780300227284.html https://ebin.pub/the-mongols-and-the-islamic-world-from-conquest-to-conversion-9780300227284.html https://academic.oup.com/yale-scholarship-online/book/35772/chapter-abstract/307664326?redirectedFrom=fulltext <ref>{{cite book |last=Jackson |first= Peter|editor-last=Nugraha|editor-first= Sidik |date=2019 |title=Dari Puncak Barbar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bsj2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA267&dq=Khwarezmians+aleppo+1241&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjijv2hw6-AAxUJxTgGHTZZBy0Q6AF6BAgMEAI |publisher=Serambi Ilmu Semesta |page=267 |isbn=6022900913}}</ref> The Khwarezmians sacked Armin and al-Faya in the Ayyubid Emirate of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite book |last=El-Azhari |first=Taef |date= 2019|title= Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661-1257|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_HkxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA369&dq=Khwarazmian+aleppo+1241&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinrNyzxK-AAxX_xzgGHStEBjUQ6AF6BAgNEAI|edition=illustrated |publisher= Edinburgh University Press|page=369 |isbn=1474423191}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Reiske |editor1-first= Johann Jacob |editor2-last=Adler |editor2-first=Jacob Georg Christian |author=Aboulféda |date= 1792|title=Abvlfedae Annales Mvslemici, Arabice Et Latine: Continens Res Gestas Ab Anno Fvgae CCCCI Ad Finem Anni DCLX. Tomvs IV. |vlume=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLpfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA456&lpg=PA456&dq=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86+%D9%81%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%B4&source=bl&ots=zk85l39Hn5&sig=ACfU3U2BLROpLTgHqL-TpBXuGE9cc6QcbA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwicy4W2xYOBAxVoT2wGHZdkApwQ6AF6BAgNEAM |location= |publisher= Venevnt Apvd Chr. Gottl. Proft, Vnivers. Bibliopol|page=456 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Abu-'l-Fidā Ismāʻīl Ibn-ʻAlī |date=1792 |title=Abulfedae Annales Muslemici Arabice Et Latine: Continens Res Gestas Ab Anno Fugae CCCCI Ad Finem Anni DCLX. 4 |volume=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KOoS3ZHIKEQC&pg=PA456&lpg=PA456&dq=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86+%D9%81%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%B4&source=bl&ots=fkpyE7rxH5&sig=ACfU3U0gVA8bvRacXuJZ7W3-I3FoNhNvkw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwicy4W2xYOBAxVoT2wGHZdkApwQ6AF6BAgLEAM |publisher= Thiele|page=456 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= أبو الفداء/الملك المؤيد إسماعيل |editor= محمود رضوان ديوب|date=1997 |title= تاريخ أبي الفداء 1-2 المسمى المختصر في أخبار البشر ج2 |volume=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s11wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT270&lpg=PT270&dq=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86+%D9%81%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%B4&source=bl&ots=GVf_NL7_zP&sig=ACfU3U2acwLZHSDAzlDsteSMb-s7MaaYIw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwicy4W2xYOBAxVoT2wGHZdkApwQ6AF6BAgMEAM |location= |publisher=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية |page= 271|isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= محمد بن عبد الرزاق بن محمد/كرد علي|editor=عبد السلام محمد أمين|date=2021 |title= خطط الشام (التاريخ السياسي والمدني في القطر الشامي) 1-2 ج1|volue=1 of خطط الشام (التاريخ السياسي والمدني في القطر الشامي) 1-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEAyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA346&lpg=PA346&dq=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86+%D9%81%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%B4&source=bl&ots=Kl2mxdnQY_&sig=ACfU3U2R1scDnQrc-ouTIlCj2Db7wM7aFA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwicy4W2xYOBAxVoT2wGHZdkApwQ6AF6BAgKEAM |location= |publisher= Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية, |page=346 |isbn=2745194194}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamluk_Sultanate&action=edit§ion=32
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Nasir_Muhammad&action=edit§ion=3
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=17
Upper Egypt Bedouin under al-Aḥdab revolted against the Mamluk Turk government of Egypt. The rebelling Bedouin tribes included al-Marāġa, Manfalūṭ, Juhayna, Banu Kilab andʿArak-Bedouins but they were defeated by the Mamluks. Mamluk Turks massacred Bedouin men and tortured Bedouin women and children and then enslaved the women and children, Bedouin heads were piled into towards and mastabas on the Nile river's banks and on the roadsides, spikes held the dead bodies of Bedouin for the public to see. Bedouin prisoners were marched to Cairo from Upper Egypt but many died of exhustion and starvation and were worked to death.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Büssow-Schmitz |first1=Sarah |date= 2011|title=RULES OF COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS BETWEEN BEDOUIN AND MAMLUK ELITES IN EGYPT:THE CASE OF THE AL-AḤDAB REVOLT, C. 1353*|url=https://www.nomadsed.de/fileadmin/user_upload/redakteure/Dateien_Intern/Archiv_AG_1/Eurasian_Studies_4__Buessow-Schmitz_.pdf |journal= Eurasian Studies|volume=IX |issue=1-2 |pages=67-104 |publisher=Instituto per l’Oriente C.A. Nallino \ Orientalisches Institut der Martin Luther Universität, Halle-Wittenberg}}</ref><ref>https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/4716189/rules-of-communication-and-politics-between-bedouin-and-sfb-586</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Roeder, Jr. |first= Larry Winter|date= 1988|title= Lecture Book on the Sinai Bedouin Tribes|url=https://www.artbyroeder.com/bedouin/Lecture%20Book%20on%20the%20Sinai%20Bedouin%20Tribes.pdf |page=69 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/6354710/tribe-chapter-art-by-larry-roeder</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=al-Maqrizi |title=السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك |url=https://hadiuth.al-eman.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%20%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9%20%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%20(%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%A9%20%D9%85%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AD%D8%A9)/i824&d1116495&n79&c&p1|chapter=فصل: سنة خمس وخمسين وسبعمائة: |publisher= نداء الإيمان}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=المقريزي|title=السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك |url=http://www.islamicbook.ws/tarekh/alslwk-010.html|chapter=سنة خمس و خمسين وسبعمائة|publisher= islamicbook}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ssrcaw.org/ar/print.art.asp?aid=324187&ac=1|title=صناعة المونسترmonster . |last=يونس |first= محمد حسين |date=2012 / 9 / 14 |website=https://www.ssrcaw.org - مركز الدراسات والابحاث العلمانية في العالم العربي }}</ref><ref>https://www.ssrcaw.org/ar/show.art.asp?aid=324187</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ahewar.org/debat/show.art.asp?aid=324187|title= صناعة المونسترmonster .|last=يونس |first= محمد حسين|date=2012 / 9 / 14 - 12:43 |website= الحوار المتمدن - موبايل}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= المقريزي|first=أبي العباس تقي الدين أحمد بن علي |editor-last=عطا|editor-first=محمد عبد القادر|date=2018 |title=السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك 1-8 مع الفهارس ج4 |volume=4 of السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك 1-8 مع الفهارس|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSh0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT194&dq=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9htWwz7CAAxW48zgGHRWlD1wQ6AF6BAgCEAI |publisher= Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية|page=195 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= مقريزي|first=أحمد ابن علي|date=1958 |title= كتاب السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك, Volume 2, Part 3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ioMbAAAAIAAJ&q=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&dq=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9htWwz7CAAxW48zgGHRWlD1wQ6AF6BAgKEAI |publisher=مطبعة لجنة التأليف والترجمة والنشر |page= 913}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=مقريزي |first= احمد بن علي|date= 1934|title=كتاب السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك, Volume 2, Part 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HiwQAQAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&dq=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9htWwz7CAAxW48zgGHRWlD1wQ6AF6BAgGEAI |publisher=لجنة التأليف والترجمة والنشر |page=913 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Maqrīzī |first= Aḥmad ibn ʻAlī |editor-last=Ziyādah|editor-first=Muḥammad Muṣṭafá |date=1934 |title=كتاب السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك |volume=2, Part 3 of Kitāb al-sulūk li-maʻrifat duwal al-mulūk: li-Taqt al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAli al-Maqrīzī, Muḥammad Muṣṭafá Ziyādah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PGxyAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&dq=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9htWwz7CAAxW48zgGHRWlD1wQ6AF6BAgDEAI |publisher= لجنة التأل والترجمة والنشر|page= 913 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= محمد|first= محمد احمد |date=1987 |title= مظاهر الحضارة في مصر العليا في عصر سلاطين الدولتين، الايوبية والمملوكية|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvNAAAAAYAAJ&q=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&dq=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%88+%D9%81%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89+%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%82+%D8%A8%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9htWwz7CAAxW48zgGHRWlD1wQ6AF6BAgIEAI |publisher= دار الهداية|page=148 }}</ref> The Upper Egyptian Arab Bedouins ('Urban) were despised by the Mamluks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= ’Abdin|first1=’Abd al-Magid |date= 1959|title=SOME GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE ARABISATION OF THE SUDAN |url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/41719579|journal= Sudan Notes and Records|volume= 40 |pages= 48–74}}</ref> The Mamluks wanted to subdue the Bedouins while the Bedouins tried rebelling against them for freedom.<ref>{{cite thesis |last= al-Hajji |first= Hayat Nasser|date=Easter term, 1975 |title= THE INTERNAL AFFAIRS IN EGYPT DURING THE THIRD REIGN OF SULTAN AL-NASIR MUHAMMED IBN QALAWUN, A.D. 1309-41|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/33992/1/11015787.pdf |type= A dissertation submitted to the University of London for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy|page=xi |publisher=Royal Holloway College |}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=29
Saudi women and children were enslaved by Ottoman and North African (Maghrebi) troops serving under the Ottoman-Albanian Khedive Muhammad Ali.<ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار|url=https://shiaonlinelibrary.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/3632_%D8%B9%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D8%AC-%D9%A3/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_602|volume= ٣ |page=٦٠٦ }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار|url=http://www.al-eman.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%89%20%D8%A8%D9%80%20%C2%AB%D8%B9%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%85%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%C2%BB%20(%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%A9%20%D9%85%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AD%D8%A9)/%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%20%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%86%20%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9%201234:/i854&d1149069&c&p1|volume= ٣ |page=119 من 129 |chapter=.شهر صفر سنة 1235:}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار|url=https://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_1815.htm|volume= ٣ |chapter=واستهل شهر صفر بيوم الجمعة سنة 1235 هـ - 19 نوفمبر 1819 م}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار|url=http://al-hakawati.net/Books/BookDetails/7829/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB--%D8%AF%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%AA-%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9-%D8%AE%D9%85%D8%B3-%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%88%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%81|volume= الثالث |chapter=ودخلت سنة خمس وثلاثين ومائتين وألف }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار|url=http://www.al-eman.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%89%20%D8%A8%D9%80%20%C2%AB%D8%B9%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%85%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%C2%BB%20(%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%A9%20%D9%85%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AD%D8%A9)/%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85%20%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9%201235:/i854&d1149074&c&p1|volume= ٣ |page=119 من 129 |chapter=.شهر صفر سنة 1235:}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار|url=http://www.al-eman.net/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%89%20%D8%A8%D9%80%20%C2%AB%D8%B9%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%85%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%C2%BB%20(%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%A9%20%D9%85%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AD%D8%A9)/%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9%20%D8%AE%D9%85%D8%B3%20%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%86%20%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%20%D9%88%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%81:/i854&d1149073&c&p1|volume= ٣ |page=119 من 129 |chapter=.شهر صفر سنة 1235:}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي |first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=تاريخ عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار |url=http://www.islamicbook.ws/tarekh/ajaeb-013.html |chapter=واستهل شهر صفر بيوم الجمعة سنة}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي |first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=تاريخ عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار|url=https://elibrary.mediu.edu.my/books/maktabah_books/117734_606.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي |first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن |title=تاريخ عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار|url= https://books-library.website/files/books-library.net-10311224Ce4S4.ppt }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=السباعــي |first= هانــي |date=ربيع األول 1423 هـ ـ مايو 2002 |title=الصــــــــراع بني املؤسسات الدينية واألنظمة احلاكمة ً مصر والسعودية أمنوذجا |url=https://www.risalawd.com/downloads.php?cat_id=1&file_id=11 |location= لندن ـ اململكة املتحدة |edition=الطبعة األوىل|publisher=مركز املقريزي للدراسات التارخيية |page= |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي |first= عبد الرحمن بن حسن|editor-last=Gahlan |editor-first=Tarek |title=Ajayb Al Athar fey Al Tarajem wa Al Akhbar (Part 4 Ch.10) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TW2UDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2663&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgLEAI |page=2663|isbn=1365753875}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=علي |first= مبارك|date=1886 |title=الخطط التوفيقية: الجديدة لمصر القاهرة ومدنها وبلادها القديمة والشهيرة, Volume 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EvoocOOH3GQC&pg=RA2-PA83&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgGEAI |publisher=المطبعة الكبرى الاميرية |page=83 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=علي |first= مبارك |date= 1886|title= “ال”خطط التوفيقية: الجديدة لمصر القاهرة ومدنها وبلادها القديمة والشهيرة, Volumes 7-12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wE3dgYL2qEC&pg=RA7-PA83&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgHEAI |publisher= ال”مطبعة الكبرى الاميرية|page=83 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=الجبرتي |first=عبد الرحمن |editor-last=شمس الدين |editor-first= إبراهيم |date= 2010|title=تاريخ عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار تاريخ الجبرتي 1-3 ج3 |volume= 3 of تاريخ عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار تاريخ الجبرتي 1-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCd0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT424&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgNEAI |publisher=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية |page=425 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=صالح |first=جلال الدين محمد|date=2014 |title=السياسة الإسلامية في الوقاية من الجريمة |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_hQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA298&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgIEAI |publisher=Al Manhal |page=298 |isbn=9796500129228}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Mubārak (Bāshā)|first= ʻAlī |date=1886 |title=al-Khiṭaṭ al-Tawfīqīyah al-jadīdah, Volumes 11-12 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=o_9FAQAAMAAJ&q=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgKEAI |page= 83}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= جبرتي|first= عبد الرحمن |date=1998 |title= عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار: الجزء الرابع|volume=4 of عجائب الآثار في التراجم والأخبار, دار الكتب والوثائق القومية (Egypt)|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WlByAAAAMAAJ&q=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgJEAI |publisher=مطبعة دار الكتب المصرية، |page=473 |isbn=9771800787}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=سباعي |first=هاني |date=2002 |title=الصراع بين المؤسسات الدينية والأنظمة الحاكمة |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F_EkAQAAIAAJ&q=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgMEAI |publisher=مركز المقريزي للدراسات التاريخية |page=109 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Zahrānī زهراني|first= ʻAlī ibn Bakhīt علي بن بخيت |date=1996 |title=الانحرافات العقدية والعلمية في القرنين الثالث عشر والرابع عشر الهجريين وآثارها في حياة الامة, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PQrYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&dq=%22%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85+%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir6qHSpbKAAxUlbmwGHYcRDNgQ6AF6BAgFEAI |publisher=دار الرسالة والنشر والتوزيع |page=218 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/al3rab29-1994/al3rab29-1994_djvu.txt }}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt&action=edit§ion=3
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khedivate_of_Egypt&action=edit§ion=19
Muhammad Ali instituted racial discrimination against Arab Egyptians with his Turkish officer elite lording over them, saying " I have not done in Egypt except what the British are doing in India; they have an army composed of Indians and ruled by British officers, and I have an army composed of Arabs ruled by Turkish officers . . . The Turks makes a better officer, since he knows that he is entitled to rule, while the Arab feels that the Turks is better than him in that respect." Turkish dominated the senior officer ranks, and any rank beyond captain (yuzbashi) was forbidden for the Egyptian Arabs and even for ranks lower than that, Arabs had to share a quota with half of the ranks of second-lieutenant (Mulazim sani) and lieutenant (mulazim evvel) going to Turks. Ibrahim Pasha also said "those who can be promoted to these ranks, since it is against the rules to have more than four Arab lieutenants per battalion." hen inquiring about recruits for promotion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |date= 2002|title=All the Pasha’s Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt |url=https://books.google.com.sbooks?id=2m4BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT214&lpg=PT214&dq=%22The+Turk+makes+a+better+officer,+since+he+knows+that+he+is+entitled+to+rule%22&source=bl&ots=mg0dOXwJW2&sig=ACfU3U1IK4SYXFs82EaSFnJxyuvLLACSBw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbqKuwzoOBAxXYXGwGHfUUBG0Q6AF6BAgPEAM |publisher=I.B.Tauris|edition=reprint, revised |page= |isbn=1617972371}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |date=2002 |title=All The Pasha’s Men:Mehmed Ali,Hisarmy And The Making Of Modern Egypt |volume=8 of Cambridge Middle East studies|series=G - Reference,Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&pg=PA246&lpg=PA246&dq=%22The+Turk+makes+a+better+officer,+since+he+knows+that+he+is+entitled+to+rule%22&source=bl&ots=-DqwTmmWgd&sig=ACfU3U3C-6IzSs4PS_Jn34aLtIUUiyzGKA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbqKuwzoOBAxXYXGwGHfUUBG0Q6AF6BAgKEAM |edition=illustrated, reprint |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |page= 246|isbn=9774246969}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Ihsanoglu|first=Ekmeleddin |date=2012 |title=The Turks in Egypt and their Cultural Legacy |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HmpjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT103&lpg=PT103&dq=%22The+Turk+makes+a+better+officer,+since+he+knows+that+he+is+entitled+to+rule%22&source=bl&ots=iJmbpHlKFZ&sig=ACfU3U0kwgIIlQNrD4CMX6HpdOGpc68zmg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbqKuwzoOBAxXYXGwGHfUUBG0Q6AF6BAgIEAM|edition=revised |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |page= |isbn=1617973491}}</ref><ref>https://vdoc.pub/documents/the-turks-in-egypt-and-their-cultural-legacy-3p5qj8bcq250</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |date=2014 |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700-1870: An Empire Besieged |series=Modern Wars In Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyesAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT392&lpg=PT392&dq=%22The+Turk+makes+a+better+officer,+since+he+knows+that+he+is+entitled+to+rule%22&source=bl&ots=F_9yhfDBk0&sig=ACfU3U2HjSpObShf02kL8HeHtvxOgcF_1g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbqKuwzoOBAxXYXGwGHfUUBG0Q6AF6BAgJEAM |publisher= Routledge|page= |isbn=1317884027}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Aksan|first= Virginia |date=2021 |title=The Ottomans 1700-1923: An Empire Besieged |series=Modern Wars In Perspective|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-CtBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138&lpg=PA138&dq=%22The+Turk+makes+a+better+officer,+since+he+knows+that+he+is+entitled+to+rule%22&source=bl&ots=zbpcrybE79&sig=ACfU3U01b4LHwXtOIWKGearpWd4BMOYIyA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbqKuwzoOBAxXYXGwGHfUUBG0Q6AF6BAgLEAM|edition=2, illustrated |publisher= Routledge|page=138 |isbn=1000440362}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= FAHMY|first1=KHALED |date=1998 |title= The Nation and Its Deserters: Conscription in Mehmed Ali’s Egypt|url= https://www.academia.edu/4921871/_The_nation_and_its_deserters_Conscription_in_Mehmed_Ali_s_army_International_Review_of_Social_History_43_1998_pp_421_436|journal= International Review of Social History |volume= 43|publisher=Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis |pages= 421–436}}</ref> The elite rulers of Egypt, Albanians, Circassians and Turks were the ones who owned pistols while guns were restricted for everyone else.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rifai |first=Mai |url=https://www.academia.edu/89466994/The_Conservation_of_an_Ottoman_Egyptian_Percussion_Muzzleloader?uc-sb-sw=16857536 |title=The Conservation of an Ottoman Egyptian Percussion Muzzleloader |journal=مجلة الاتحاد العام للاَثاريين العرب |volume=12 |publisher=Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University|page=138}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=29
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yemeni–Ottoman_conflicts&action=edit
====Ottoman invasions of Yemen====
Ottoman Turkish troops looted, raped and killed Yemenis in [[Sana'a]] after using cannon to defeat Zaydi Imamate forces in 1547.<ref>{{cite book |last= Caton |first=Steven C. |chapter=2 : History |date= 2013|title= Yemen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BfDXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=%22Ottomans+entered+clandestinely+at+night+and+terrorized+its+inhabitants+with+murder,+rape,+and+pillage.%22&source=bl&ots=MYIjc2KbMk&sig=ACfU3U1cRXqnWh4ylsFu0WKFh5kzwhP0BA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjRxN6ttq-AAxWBgP0HHavvAqgQ6AF6BAgJEAM |edition=illustrated, annotated |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=61 |isbn=159884928X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Caton |first= Steven C. |title=Yeman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V-bIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT65&lpg=PT65&dq=%22Ottomans+entered+clandestinely+at+night+and+terrorized+its+inhabitants+with+murder,+rape,+and+pillage.%22&source=bl&ots=Ajlu1n8PJL&sig=ACfU3U30agJjndYb6xHN2sb2fzh7QhgfbA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjRxN6ttq-AAxWBgP0HHavvAqgQ6AF6BAgKEAM |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |page=61 |isbn=9798216169307}}</ref>
Houthi Islamic scholar mentioned atrocities Ottoman Turks committed against north Yemenis in Sana'a during their 19th-20th century occupation including Turkish soldiers raping virgin Yemeni girls and skinning and impaling Yemeni men alive.<ref>{{cite AV media |people= Ibrahim Al-Ubeidi |date=Mar 11, 2022 |title= Houthi Islamic Scholar Ibrahim Al-Ubeidi Slams Turkish President Erdoğan For Meeting Israeli Counterpart Hertzog, Recalls Ottoman Methods Of Torturing Yemeni Rebels; 'Turkey Thinks Israel Can Replace America And Influence Russia'|trans-title= |type=television |language= Arabic |url=https://www.memri.org/tv/sanaa-sermon-houthi-scholar-ubeidi-turkey-hosted-israeli-president-herzog-ottoman-atrocities |archive-url=https://www.memri.org/player/clip/55872/994,497/1 |archive-date=Mar 11, 2022 |format=video|time=04:07|location=Sana'a, Yemen |publisher= Al-Eman TV (Yemen)|id= #9444 }}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people= Ibrahim Al-Ubeidi |date=Mar 11, 2022 |title= Houthi Islamic Scholar Ibrahim Al-Ubeidi Slams Turkish President Erdoğan For Meeting Israeli Counterpart Hertzog, Recalls Ottoman Methods Of Torturing Yemeni Rebels; 'Turkey Thinks Israel Can Replace America And Influence Russia'|trans-title= |type=television |language= Arabic |url=https://twitter.com/MEMRIReports/status/1506253532168699907 |archive-date=Mar 11, 2022 |format=video|time=04:07|location=Sana'a, Yemen |publisher= Al-Eman TV (Yemen)|id= #9444 }}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_sexual_violence&action=edit§ion=29
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tahirids_(Yemen)&action=edit§ion=3
====Mamluk invasion of Yemen====
Yemenis were raped, burned and looted in [[Zabid]] by Circassian Burji Mamluk soldiers when the Mamluks were fighting against the Yemeni Tahirid Sultanate in 1515. The Mamluks were supported by the Zaydis against the Sunni Tahirids as the Mamluks were invading Yemen due to their fear of Portuguese and Ottoman expansion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bidwell |first= Robin Leonard |date= 2019|title=The Two Yemens |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jk2fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT24&lpg=PT24&dq=%22The+Mamluk+capture+of+Zabid+was+followed+by+plunder,+burning+and+rape.+The+Zaydis,+smarting+under+their+recent+loss+of+Sanaa,+made+common+cause+with+the+invaders+against+the+Sultan+who+was+killed;+his+state+fragmented.%22&source=bl&ots=BAQCGt88kq&sig=ACfU3U2Jc3U5wmOAMTjrZsZhOomnEXDIHg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj06Za-vq-AAxUh_7sIHf5wCYcQ6AF6BAgJEAM |edition=reprint |publisher= Routledge |isbn=1000306526}}</ref> Young Yemeni boys and Yemeni girls were raped by the Mamluks in Zabid for three days at it was sacked, burned and looted.<ref>{{cite book |last=Caton|first=Steven C. |date= 2013|title=Yemen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oEzEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59&dq=zabid+mamluk+rape&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6n-icxKuBAxXQ8DgGHZHyBa0Q6AF6BAgJEAI |page=59|chapter=2 History |edition=illustrated, annotated|publisher= Bloomsbury Publishing USA|series=Middle East in Focus|isbn=159884928X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Al-Radi|first1=Selma M. S. |last2=Barnes|first2=Ruth|editor-last=Hillenbrand|editor-first= Robert |date= 1997|title=The ʻAmiriya in Radaʻ: The History and Restoration of a Sixteenth-century Madrasa in the Yemen|issue= 13 of Oxford studies in Islamic art||url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PR1UAAAAMAAJ&q=zabid+mamluk+rape&dq=zabid+mamluk+rape&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6n-icxKuBAxXQ8DgGHZHyBa0Q6AF6BAgEEAI|page=30 |edition=illustrated|publisher=Oxford University Press for the Board of the Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford|isbn=0197280234}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yahya_Muhammad_Hamid_ed-Din&action=edit§ion=3
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Yemen&action=edit
Sexual hospitality, or the practice of offering wives and daughters to male stranger guests was practiced by Yemeni Arab tribes in eastern and north Yemen in the 1930s according to Karl Rathjens who was there. Yemeni Arab women provided male guests with prostitutes at hostels they owned in the highland Yemeni villages and towns. Both Yemeni Jews and Muslim guests visited these hostels in Lahj and Ibb. Unmarried pregnant women were also married off in violation of shariah by tribal shaykhs and a Yemeni Qadi complained about it. Walter Dostal noted the "phenomenon of socially permitted pre- and extra-marital sexual relations practied by girls and wives in South Arabian tribes." Women in north Yemen could divorce her husband and remarry at will according to a 17th century writer. Walter Dostal wrote about the South Arabian tribes practicing sexual hospitality and matrilineality.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wagner |first= Mark S. |date=2015 |title= Jews and Islamic Law in Early 20th-Century Yemen|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MombBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4&dq=yemeni+sexual+hospitality&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijkMeJ0cSEAxVlPxAIHZGUBpUQ6AF6BAgIEAI |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=4 |edition=illustrated, reprint|isbn=025301492}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Gur-Klein |first=Thalia |date2014= |title= Sexual Hospitality in the Hebrew Bible: Patronymic, Metronymic, Legitimate and Illegitimate Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eMLoBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9&dq=yemeni+sexual+hospitality&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijkMeJ0cSEAxVlPxAIHZGUBpUQ6AF6BAgLEAI |publisher= Routledge|page=9 |edition=revised|isbn=1317545672}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |date= 1992|title= Cultural Anthropology of the Middle East: A Bibliography, Volume 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8SIUufF-YIC&pg=PA84&dq=yemeni+sexual+hospitality&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijkMeJ0cSEAxVlPxAIHZGUBpUQ6AF6BAgKEAI |location= |publisher=BRILL |page= 84|isbn=9004107452}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Dostal|first= Walter |date= 1990|title= Eduard Glaser, Forschungen im Yemen: eine quellenkritische Untersuchung in ethnologischer Sicht|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WQkzAAAAIAAJ&q=W.+Dostal.+1990+Edward+Glaser.+Forschungen+im+Yemen.+Eine+quellenkritsche+Untersuchung+in+ethnologischer+Sicht.+Wien:+Akademie+der+246+pp&dq=W.+Dostal.+1990+Edward+Glaser.+Forschungen+im+Yemen.+Eine+quellenkritsche+Untersuchung+in+ethnologischer+Sicht.+Wien:+Akademie+der+246+pp&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZp7jquMeEAxUt1AIHHSdBDMgQ6AF6BAgEEAI|location= |publisher=Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |edition=illustrated |isbn=3700117469}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Joseph |editor-first=Suad |date= 2018|title=Arab Family Studies: Critical Reviews |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ex0xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA361&dq=yemeni+sexual+hospitality&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijkMeJ0cSEAxVlPxAIHZGUBpUQ6AF6BAgMEAI |publisher= Syracuse University Press|page=361 |isbn=0815654243}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dostal |first=Walter |date= 1990|title=Sexual Hospitality' and the Problem of Matrilinearity in Southern Arabia |journal= Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|url= |location= |volume=20 |pages=17–30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |date=1994 |title= Yemen Update: Bulletin of the American Institute for Yemeni Studies, Issues 34-37|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lMwMAQAAMAAJ&q=yemeni+sexual+hospitality&dq=yemeni+sexual+hospitality&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijkMeJ0cSEAxVlPxAIHZGUBpUQ6AF6BAgEEAI |publisher=American Institute for Yemeni Studies |page=42 }}</ref> Imam Yahya was disgusted by the practice of sexual hospitality among Yemeni tribes and said they deserved to be targets of jihad more than Christians.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first= Akbar|date= 2013|title= The Thistle and the Drone: How America's War on Terror Became a Global War on Tribal Islam|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=n_YMKlVfFLkC&pg=PA146&dq=yemeni+sexual+hospitality&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijkMeJ0cSEAxVlPxAIHZGUBpUQ6AF6BAgHEAI |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|page= 146|edition=reprint|isbn=0815723792}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Dostal|first1=Walter |date=1990 |title="SEXUAL HOSPITALITY" AND THE PROBLEM OF MATRILINEARITY IN SOUTHERN ARABIA |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223255 |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies |volume= 20|issue= Proceedings of the Twenty Third SEMINAR FOR ARABIAN STUDIES held at London on 18th - 20th July 1989 (1990) |pages=17-30 |publisher=Archaeopress }}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit§ion=13
The Qing Yongzheng emperor chopped the Tibetan province of [[Kham]] in two and gave parts of them to Han provinces, with the Han province of Yunnan taking part of Kham's southwest and the Han province of Sichuan taking territories from [[Dartsedo]] to the middle of Kham and the remainder of western Kham was put under Lhasa to Chamdo's west. This was done on the suggestion of the Han Chinese governor general of Shaanxi and Sichuan, Yue Zhongqi, in 1725. He was far more expanstionist than Yue Shenglong, his father.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herman |first1=John |last2= |first2= |date=June 2014|title=Collaboration and Resistance on the Southwest Frontier: Early Eighteenth-Century Qing Expansion on Two Fronts |url=https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=hist_pubs |archive-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265447718_Collaboration_and_Resistance_on_the_Southwest_Frontier_Early_Eighteenth-Century_Qing_Expansion_on_Two_Fronts |archive-date= |journal=Late Imperial China |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=77-112 |doi=10.1353/late.2014.0001 |page=90, 96 |access-date=}}</ref>
In the Lubu neighbourhood near Yuthok road many descendants of Tibetan women and Han Chinese soldiers from Sichuan who came with the Qing Amban live in Lhasa and they were the part of the Chinese community along with officials and merchants before 1950.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yeh |first=Emily T. |editor-last=Mayaram |editor-first= Shail |author-link= |date=2009 |title=The Other Global City |series=Routledge Advances in Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-d6PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=%22precise+dates+cannot+be+determined+from+available+records,+but%22&source=bl&ots=x2HzpL0KUw&sig=ACfU3U3QansA36YQjpJKYl9yFqFjN4RG9g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjSp8ns1ObyAhUjn-AKHd6dAQYQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22precise%20dates%20cannot%20be%20determined%20from%20available%20records%2C%20but%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Routledge |edition=illustrated |page=60 |chapter=3 Living Together in Lhasa Ethnic Relations, Coercive Amity, and Subaltern Cosmopolitanism |isbn=1135851506}}</ref> 2,000 Sichuan Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers and 1,000 Manchu bannermen were led by Galbi on the Sichuan route while the northern Sichuan Songpan based Green Standard Han Chinese soldiers and Manchu bannermen were joined with other soldiers to form 12,000 solders under Haoge's grandson Yansin to form the Kokonor route in the 1720 Qing conquest of Tibet against the Zunghar occupiers of Tibet. Yunnan province sent 500 Green standard army Han Chinese troops while the banner garrisons in Hangzhou and Jiangning had sent 2,000 Manchu bannermen to garrison the Tibetan town of Gyelthang near Yunnan and these Manchu bannermen and Yunnan Green standard soldiers were sent to Chamdo to join the Sichuan route soldiers on the way to invade Tibet. The Sichuan garrison then contributed 600 soldiers to an advanced guard under the command of Yue Shenglong's son, the Sichuan fujiang (regionla vice commander) Yue Zhongqi, a Han Chinese general. Logistics were managed by Han Banner General Nian Gengyao. The Qing invasions forces only had 2 months of supplies so the Manchu commander Galdbi was pressured by Han general Yue Zhongqi to continue the conquest even though Galbi wanted more reinforcements and to wait due to passing through desolate regions and high mountains. Lhasa was reached by the Sichuan route army first after 4 months on September 1720 while the Kokonor route soldiers were still behind. To Lhasa's east was Maizhokunggar which was immediately raided by Galbi who did not pause for Yansin's Kokonor route to come. The path to Lhasa was then cleared after Maizhokunggar was taken. There were only defenses in place against the Kokonor route armies by Dzungar leader Tsering Dondup since he only expected them to come since no army had ever come from the dangerous Lhasa Dartsedo route via Sichuan. Yue zhongqi was the first Qing officer to step foot into Lhasa after Lhasa was conquered by the Sichuan route on 24 September. The Dzungar soldiers blocking the Kokonor route were then defeated by the Kokonor route Qing armies who came to Lhasa on 10 October. 1,000 Dzungar soldiers fled home from Tibet and Tsering Dondup, the 76th Dalai Lama was enthroned. in Xinjiang, Hami and Turfan were seized by Qing soldiers from Dzungar control where they were blocking the reinforcements from the Dzungars to Tibet. 500 Han Chinese Green Standard soldiers and 500 Manchu bannermen were ordered by the Qing Kangxi emperor to join 1,200 Sichuan soldiers and 2,800 other Qing soldiers in Tibet as Qing garrison soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dai |first=Yingcong |author-link= |date=2011 |title=The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing
|series=China Program Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9YTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=%22for+the+troops+had+only+brought+with+them+provisions+enough+for+two+months,+and+any+delay+would+put+them+in+a+dangerous+situation%22&source=bl&ots=hc8GyqelH0&sig=ACfU3U3B2qcXTCrYiqUly6pmVuOiY41tYw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj_yeO_1ObyAhVlhOAKHSYPBvMQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22for%20the%20troops%20had%20only%20brought%20with%20them%20provisions%20enough%20for%20two%20months%2C%20and%20any%20delay%20would%20put%20them%20in%20a%20dangerous%20situation%22&f=false |location= |publisher=University of Washington Press |page=81, 82 |isbn=0295800704}}</ref> A mix of Tusi chiefs, monasteries and Lhasa based armies controlled Kham under the Qing. Over the course of Qing history, the Tibetan region of Kham was garrisoned by the Xubei Xinjun (New Army Reserves), supply depot guards and Han Chinese Green Standard armies. The Qing sent the Green Standard army Han Chinese soldiers into Kham before all the others beginning after Sichuan was incorporated into the Qing in 1652 when Hualinping was garrisoned by Han Chinese Green Standard soldiers who performed punitive campaigns against the Tibetans and served as a constabulary forces. Kham was immediately garrisoned with a defense system by the Qing before other frontiers in the southwest. 200 soldiers were stationed in 1663 in Hualinping when it was made a battalion which was under strength but it was later upgraded to 375 soldiers at full strength 30 years later. 1,000 soldiers were garrisoned after a 1699 revolt by locals. 2 youji and a full battalion under a fujiang were stationed in 1707 in Huallingping after it was made a brigade. In the campaign against the Zunghars in Lhasa in 1718 the Qing used thhe Litang, Batang and Dartsendo route and stationed logistical stations and garrison posts in all those places. The Qing stationed soldiers in Garthar near the 7th Dalai Lama after he had to flee Lhasa due to the Dzungar war in 1729. The Garther Monastery was constructed and 500 soldiers and officers along with the deputy general were placed with him in Garthar. The Garthar brigade absorbed the Hualinping brigade. More soldiers from China were added to the Hualinping brigade after 300 soldiers were initially left after the transfer of soldiers to Garthar. 4,000 soldiers were stationed in Dartsendo by the 1730s as these garrisons became strongholds. Local Tibetan women were married by the Chinese soldiers as more Han Chinese migrants and settlers came into Kham under Qing rule. The garrison sizes skyrocketed as 5 battalions were stationed. Litang were garrisoned by Han Chinese cavalry made out of 300 men by the Qing in 1749 as garrison numbers were vastly increased due to more campaigns in 1736-1795 under the Qianlong emperor. The Qing then started regrouping the existing soldiers into tighter garrisons after the 1730s. The 300 soldiers of the Hualinping brigade received 700 soldiers from Garthar brigade after it was disbanded in 1735 when the Dalai Lama was moved back to Lhasa. In 1744 the Qing engaged in further reforms which tightened the troops into fewer areas. In 1778 there were 1,367 soldiers after two instances o the Qing increasing soldier numbers after the Jinchuan campaigns. 16,000 Han Chinese farmers, miners and merchants lived in the area in 1850 as their population grew. 21,000 more Han Chinese came to Kham from 1851-1911. Soldiers were increasingly concentrated in Dartsendo as individual brigades were shrunk in number. 14 towns were garrisoned by 3 battalions numbering 1,017 soldiers in the the newly formed Fuhe brigade as more reforms were made. Between Kham and Sichuan, Dartsendo was the major hub of Qing soldiers. The Chengdu general in Sichuan then took command of all the battalions. This stayed the same way to 1910. Lhasa, Lhari, Chamdo, Batang, Litang and Dartsendo all had logistical stations constructed in them by Han Chinese Green Standard army troops in the Dzungar war. 60 Khampa cavalry and 298 Han Chinese Green standard soldiers were stationed in Batang, 300 Khampa cavalry and 99 Han Chinese Green Standard army soldiers were stationed in Litang and 46 Han Chinese Green Standard army soldiers were stationed in Dartsendo. Over 700 Han Chinese Green Standard army troops were each stationed in the major route garrisons of Lhari and Chamdo. 1,000 Han Chinese Green STandard army soldiers were stationed by 1899-1900 in Chamdo. The Qing also ordered 3,000 soldiers in Lhasa in 1911. A mix of Tusi soldiers made out of native Aboriginal Tibetan Khampa and Han Chinese Green Standard army soldiers were stationed in outposts close to these service corps. In the 1900sthe Qing regrouped specially trained Green Standard units into the New Army reserves in Kham. New Army reserves made up the Sichuan provincial soldiers led by Han Chinese commander in chief general Ma Weiqi who had 5 battalions at his disposal during the war against the Batang Tibetan Lama monk rebels of Kham. The monastic rebels of Kham were fought against by Han Chinese banner general Zhao Erfeng who had 2,500 soldirs in 5 battalions after absorbing the battalion from the Manchu Fengquan in addition to his initial 4 battalions he founded in 1905. More training and organization was introduced in more reforms as the number of soldiers was reduced in 1907. A cavalry battalion, a body guard battalion and three ordinary battalions were added by Zhao. The Tibetan official of Nyarong were cowered into retreat and the Dege chieftain was crushed by this army raised by Zhao Erfeng in 1907. In Dege a new battalion was added by Zhao. Zhao Erfeng and the Qing were planning to convert Kham into a normal province of the Qing just as the republican Xinhai revolution started. Zhao added a military band, 2 companies of quartermasters, 2 companies of engineers, a battalion of cavalry and a battalion of artillery in 1910.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Xiuyu |author-link= |date=2011 |title=China's Last Imperial Frontier: Late Qing Expansion in Sichuan's Tibetan Borderlands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XHOt--rbgJoC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=%22at+every+place,+these+features+underwent+changes+over+time,+but+also+exhibited+some+enduring+patterns+that+indicated+the+presence%22&source=bl&ots=zhsYnCSGcd&sig=ACfU3U3p5Rm3allgLB4K53B_Y0B5rO7h5g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiszKbN1ObyAhVKTd8KHZLSDnMQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22at%20every%20place%2C%20these%20features%20underwent%20changes%20over%20time%2C%20but%20also%20exhibited%20some%20enduring%20patterns%20that%20indicated%20the%20presence%22&f=false |location= |publisher=Lexington Books |edition=illustrated|page=29, 30, 31 |isbn=0739168096}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit§ion=17
Tibetan Lamas tortured French Catholic missionary Jules Dubernard to death in 1905.<ref>{{cite book ||last1= |Musgravefirst1= Toby |last2= Gardner|first2= Chris |last3=Musgrave |first3=Will |author-link= |date=1998 |title= The Plant Hunters : Two Hundred Years of Adventure and Discovery Around the World|url=https://twitter.com/MalMoncrief/status/1309019505566375940 |location= |publisher=Ward Lock |page= |isbn=9780706377538}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_aspects_of_ritual_slaughter&action=edit§ion=6
Kublai Khan was angry that Muslims refused to eat non-Halal meat in his presence and he wrote and edict saying that his grandfather Genghis Khan commanded Muslims to eat non-Halal meat saying that they were his slaves conquered by him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Elverskog |first=Johan |author-link= |date=2011 |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |series=Encounters with Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA228&lpg=PA228&dq=the+khan+was+exceedingly+pleased+with+the+birds+and+he+asked+numerous+question+about+them+and+as+their+conversation+about+new+hunting+techniques+became+more+animated+the+khan+invited+them+to+join+him+for+dinner&source=bl&ots=H0YEzV9kbt&sig=ACfU3U3FK1lzdW5fXXE3n0WUW7CJtK7y2A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbko7B_rbyAhWkTN8KHf_oDkIQ6AF6BAgDEAM |location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |edition=illustrated |page=228 |isbn=0812205316}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adam_(monk)&action=edit§ion=1
Yisi directly participated in fighting An Lushan's forces under Guo Ziyi's command.<ref>{{cite book |last=Forte |first=Antonino |editor1-last=Tang|editor1-first=Li |editor2-last=Winkler|editor2-first= Dietmar W.|author-link= |date=2013 |title=From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC&pg=PA112&lpg=PA112&dq=%22was+an+honorific+title+for+high+officials%22+%22the+more+striking+it+is+that+his+name%22&source=bl&ots=N2fpqSXtdQ&sig=ACfU3U3Fjuc09Ot0LI9gsQjTu08-6qZVXA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZ6Nrus_DyAhXKY98KHRjtBswQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22was%20an%20honorific%20title%20for%20high%20officials%22%20%22the%20more%20striking%20it%20is%20that%20his%20name%22&f=false |location= |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |edition=illustrated |page=112 |chapter=A BELLIGERENT PRIEST- YISI AND HIS POLITICAL CONTEXT MAX DEEG Cardiff University, UK In memoriam Antonino Forte (1940-2006) model scholar, friend and mentor |isbn=3643903294}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Mongolia&action=edit§ion=5
Altan Khan visited Tibet and converted the Mongol people to Tibetan Buddhism in the 16th century, before which the Mongols were majority Shamanist Tengrist.<ref>{{cite book |last=Forsyth |first= James |author-link= |date=2013 |title=The Caucasus: A History |url=https://ebin.pub/the-caucasus-a-history-0521872952-9780521872959.html |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page= |isbn=09780521872959|quote=most Mongols remained Shamanists until the sixteenth century, when Altan Khan, after a campaign in Tibet, brought back Buddhist lamas of the Yellow Hat sect to eastern Mongolia. The Oirats adopted Buddhism somewhat later, after their Sanskrit scholar Namkhaizhamso returned from Tibet.29 Thereafter they maintained contact with Tibet, sending embassies to Lhasa}}</ref>
After the leaders of the Mongols like Altan Khan were converted to Tibetan Buddhism, they permitted the Tibetan Buddhist Lamas to use brutal violence against ordinary Mongols to force convert them from Tengrism shamanism to Tibetan Buddhism Lamaism. The Tibetan Buddhist Lamas burned traditional Tengrist Buddhist Ongghot statues and used dog dung to smoke shamanesses and shamans and seized the sheep and horses of the shamanists. Caya Pandita said :"Whoever among the people whom you see has worshipped Ongghot, burn their Ongghot and take their horses and sheep. From those who let the shamans and shamanesses perform fumigations, take horses. Fumigate the shamans and shamanesses however with dog dung" in 1650. Buryat Mongols were mostly Shamanist Tengrist before the 18th century. They were converted to Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism in the 18th century. Khori and Selenga Buryats were visisted by Tibetan Buddhist Lama missionaries in 1712. More Mongol and Tibetan Buddhist monks (over 50 in numbeR) in 1730 came and built Tibetan Lamaist monasteries. They worked to convert them to 1741. Agha Buryats were described as "complete adherents of the shamanist faith" before 1788. Then the Conghol monastery burned their shamanist idols andp erescuted shamanists in 1819 during an assembly meeting. Then "the Selenga and Khori Buryats, the fifteen clans, Irintsin, Khasakh, Barghutsin, Suisu up to Tungkin and Alair destroyed through fire all Ongghot figures, instruments and costumes of the shamans and shamanesses." in 1820. The Dalai Lamas starting from the third Dalai Lama had given the direct orders to violently destroy and persecutor Mongol shamanists.<ref>{{cite book |last=HEISSIG |first= WALTHER |editor-last=Znamenski|editor-first= Andrei A.|author-link= |date=2004 |title=Shamanism: Critical Concepts in Sociology |series=Critical concepts in sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Elbb5zYvWMC&pg=PA247&lpg=PA247&dq=%22Suisu+up+to+Tungkin+and+Alair+destroyed+through+fire+all+Ongghot+figures%22%22&source=bl&ots=QAoLxFFPpq&sig=ACfU3U1QsPTvTKb2vAWWYubMPoTuuMvv2g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj2tuyHjaXzAhWLmeAKHev8DuoQ6AF6BAgDEAM |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher=Psychology Press |page= 247|isbn=0415311926|chapter=13. The Lamaist suppression of shamanism|quote=... Barghutsin , Suisu up to Tungkin and Alair destroyed through fire all Ongghot figures , instruments and costumes of the shamans and shamanesses .}}</ref> It started in 1578 when Altan Khan was converted and ordered to destroy Ongghot idols by the 3rd Dalai Lama. Then the Khalkha Abadai Khan was ordered to destroy the Ongghot by the 3rd Dalai Lama. Thousands of Ongghut were destroyed and burned in Khorchin Mongol territory when they were burned in a 2.40 meter high and 8 meter cirucmference pyre, a span of 4 yurt frames. <ref>{{cite book |last=Heissig |first=Walther |editor-last=Samuel|editor-first=Geoffrey |others=Translated by Geoffrey Samuel|author-link= |date=1980 |title=The Religions of Mongolia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzDMbpw7EecC&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=%22Suisu+up+to+Tungkin+and+Alair+destroyed+through+fire+all+Ongghot+figures%22%22&source=bl&ots=HFvwEmq09E&sig=ACfU3U3wkNpe1fZuH5-MyUSQjX5QB6B7pA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj2tuyHjaXzAhWLmeAKHev8DuoQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher=University of California Press |page= 38|isbn=0520038576|quote=... Barghutsin , Suisu up to Tungkin and Alair destroyed through fire all Ongghot figures , instruments and costumes of the shamans and shamanesses .}}</ref>
The 3rd Dalai Lama Sonam Gyatso went to Mongolia with Altan Khan for the remainder of his life and died there. Sonam Gyatso claimed that Altan Khan was a reincarnation of Kublai Khan while he was a reincarnation of Drogon and they came back to force the Tibetan Buddhist religions on the Mongols. Sonam Gyatso stipulated the total eradication of Mongolian Tengrist shamanism. The Tibetan Buddhist Lamas slaughtered, jailed, marginalized, dishonored and deported shamanists and thousands of shamans in a brutal vicious fashion. Mongols were converted under threat of being butchered to the Tibetan Buddhist religion. One painting shows Lamas burning a Mongol shaman to execute him and it appeared in 1995 at the San Francisco Asian Art Museum. Lamaism was the religion of all Mongols by two generations. The Mongol converts then paid to use gold and silver to write Mongol language translation of Tibetan Buddhist texts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Kevin B. |author-link= |date=2016 |title=Sky Shamans of Mongolia: Meetings with Remarkable Healers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wksyCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT57&lpg=PT57&dq=%22depicting+a+Mongol+shaman+being+burned+to+death+while+lamas+calmly+look+on%22&source=bl&ots=ozoabTniWq&sig=ACfU3U2zj1mar7rGYBJHbndSflrAeu62fA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi22bmM06XzAhVYF1kFHWDED2AQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher= |North Atlantic Bookspage= |isbn=1583949984|quote=The Asian Art Museum of San Francisco in 1995 exhibited a Buddhist painting depicting a Mongol shaman being burned to death while lamas calmly look on.8 A ...}}</ref>
Tibetan Buddhist lamaist missionaries and Mongol Tengrist shamans engaged in a bloody fight in the 16th century when Altan Khan converted Mongolia to Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhist Lamas mass burned shaman idols, used economic means to bribe people into converting, used medical missionary activities to show they were more proficient at medical care than shamans and proved they had more powerful "magic" than the shamans. The Tibetan Lamas brutally persecuted Mongol shaman cults and illegally built temples. The Mongol shamans hated the Lamas (who were supported by Mongol aristocrats) for what they did. One tale has a 5 year old Mongol boy being initiated into a Tibetan Buddhist lamasery but he was cursed by his own shamaness mother Suncig who then committed suicide.<ref>{{cite book |last=COSMO |first=NICOLA DI |editor-last=McDermott|editor-first=Joseph Peter |others=Contributors Robert L. Chard, Nichola Di Cosmo, David Faure, Andreas Janousch, Michael Loewe, James Laidlaw, Mark E. Lewis, Faculty of Oriental Studies Staff |author-link= |date=1999 |title=State and Court Ritual in China |volume=Volume 54 of University Cambridge: University of Cambridge oriental publications |issue=Issue 54 of University of Cambridge Oriental Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgYdycfeJyAC&pg=PA374&lpg=PA374&dq=%22generated+the+shamans%27+unforgiving+hatred,+as+can+be+seen+in+the+story+of+Suncig%22&source=bl&ots=6Do7LcOyJq&sig=ACfU3U0SrczneQXVWgB0m1mw5USmqPuyiA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwivuJnN06XzAhUDUzUKHQagBlwQ6AF6BAgCEAM
|location= |edition=illustrated|publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=374 |isbn=0521621577|chapter=11 Manchu shamanic ceremonies at the Qing court |ISSN =0068-6891}}</ref>
Buddhism started spreading to the Amur Evenks, Oroches and Nanais, the Tuva Soyots and Mongol Buryats, monks made up 20% of Buryat Mongol males in the 1820s and Buddhism spread among them in the 1710s. In the 1740s Baraba steppe Turks were being converted to Islam. Tibetan Buddhist monks fiercely and violently persecuted Tengrist shamans since they saw their moral codes as opposite and the shamans as rivals so in Buryatia "the poor shamanists were everywhere hunted down. No forests, no mountain could hide them from the vengeance of the lamas". Tibetan Buddhists trampled shaman fields, incineraetd shamanist equipment, beat shamans and outlawed shaman sacrifices in the 1900s in Altai while Tibetan Buddhist monks destroyed shamanist sacred sites and built Buddhist shrines on top of them in Tuva.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |author-link= |date=2007 |title=Shamans: Siberian Spirituality and the Western Imagination |series=Hambledon Continuum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QdPUAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=%22thereafter+the+same+religion+continued+to+make+less+spectacular+inroads+among+the+turkic-speaking+peoples+of+the+south%22&source=bl&ots=5_B8MYilwX&sig=ACfU3U3AFdA96L1lqg54cG3FugAsPF8zKw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiK3ciF66rzAhV3M1kFHTPKCeMQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |edition= illustrated, reprint|publisher=A&C Black |page= 17, 18|isbn=1847250270}}</ref>
The Daur and the Tungusic Sibe, Orochun, Manchu, Hezhen and Ewenki have a tale called "Nisan Shamaness" which might be related to the tale of "Ny Dan the Shamaness" which was recorded in Manchu in Heilongjiang province's Fuyu ocunty, Youyi township, Sanjiazi village from almost 80 year old Ji Chunsheng, a Manchu elder in 1985 by Aisin Gioro-Wulaxichun. The story is about a female shamaness who was an enemy of Tibetan Buddhist lamas and monks at the Qing court. The story is based on real life conflict when Mongolia's shamans were persecuted in the 16th-19th centuries by Tibetan Buddhists. Tibetan monks and Lamas at the Qing court in the story incite the Qing emperor against Ny Dan leading him to execute her but after death she curses them with darkness and forces them to placate her with rituals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shi |first=Kun |editor-last=Lopez Jr.|editor-first=Donald S. |author-link= |date=2021 |title=Religions of China in Practice |volume=Volume 37 of Princeton Readings in Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OJkvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA225&lpg=PA225&dq=%22but+she+is+at+the+mercy+of+the+envious+Tibetan+monks%22&source=bl&ots=_QJzzO2AUj&sig=ACfU3U1YEqJMiPesvoHvYIlvCY-frnbppA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj-ypOC7KrzAhWrElkFHVqADHkQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher= Princeton University Press|page= 225-228|isbn=|0691234604chapter=15 Ny Dan the Manchu Shamaness }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rawski |first=Evelyn S. |author-link= |date=2001 |title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions |series=A Philip E. Lilienthal book, EBSCO eBook Collection|url=
https://books.google.com/books?id=t7AwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA242&lpg=PA242&dq=%22Orochi+living+on+the+Amur+River+cite+the+Manchu+influence+in+shamanic%22&source=bl&ots=anUijHJ8mo&sig=ACfU3U2833rX4BxKiH1Jsf2XQs50OqMVDQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjIgZTi7arzAhXMElkFHXC3CvYQ6AF6BAgCEAM |archive-url=https://ebin.pub/download/the-last-emperors-a-social-history-of-qing-imperial-institutions-0520212894-9780520212893.html|archive-date=2021 August 3|location= |edition=illustrated, reprint|publisher=University of California Press |page=242-244 |isbn=0520228375}}</ref>
The words "incorrigibles" and "liars" were used to insult Tibetan Buddhist lamas by Manchu Qing emperor Hong Taiji since the Manchus did not want to convert to Tibetan Buddhism and merely viewed patronizing Tibetan Lamas as a means of controlling Mongols who followed the religion. The Qing under Hong Taiji also adopted a Hurha legend as the origin of the Aisin Gioro family and the Jurchen Jin dynasty is not mentioned in the legend at all neither was Mentemu (Mongke Temur) and there were old Chinese elements in the myth. Manchu clans were no longer defined by Jurchen parameters but by the Han Chinese concept of stricy descent from genealogical ancestors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Peterson |first= Willard J. |author-link= |date=1978 |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, Part 1, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 |url=https://www.academia.edu/44170430/THE_CAMBRIDGE_HISTORY_OF_CHINA_vol_9 |archive-url=https://epdf.pub/the-cambridge-history-of-china-vol-9-the-ching-dynasty-part-1-to-1800.html|archive-date=2021 August 5 |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=64 |isbn=0 521 24334 3}}</ref> Hung Taiji said "The Mongolian princes are abandoning the Mongolian language, their names are all in imitation of the lamas." since he thought that Mongol culture was being destroyed by Tibetan Buddhism. He outwardly publicly patronized Tibetan Buddhist Lamas just to control Mongols while holding them in contempt and mocking Mongols for following their religion in private.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wakeman |first=Frederic E. |author-link= |date=1985 |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China, Volume 1 |volume=
Volume 2 of Great Enterprise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA203&lpg=PA203&dq=%22Privately+Hung+Taiji+was+contemptuous+of+the+Mongols%27+belief+in+Buddhism,+thinking+that+it+vitiated+their+cultural+identity%22&source=bl&ots=PgqDr99HkY&sig=ACfU3U05rj3lIDabiyCkNeBL3yo6jhNciQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj33dqq_arzAhUBneAKHe-IBlgQ6AF6BAgCEAM |archive-url=https://ebin.pub/the-great-enterprise-the-manchu-reconstruction-of-imperial-order-in-seventeenth-century-china-0520048040-9780520048041.html |archive-date=2021 August 5 |archive-url2=https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC_djvu.txt |archive-date2=2021 August 5 |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher=University of California Press |page=203 |isbn=0520048040}}</ref>
The Oirat were converted to the Tibetan Buddhist Yellow Hat dGe-lugs-pa school by Caya Bandida Namqayijamso (1599-1662) and the Eastern Mongols were converted by Neyiči Toyin (1557-1653). They were both Qošod princes. A lama was recruited from a son of every noble Oirat family. In order to propagate Buddhism, the elimination of shamanism was the top priority of the dGe-lugs-pa Lamas. The Mongols referred to their Tengrist shamanic religion as "religion of the shamans" or the "Black Faith". The Lamas viewed the shamanist idols and shamans as their enemies and wanted to the total destruction of these shamanic ongon idols. The shamans were ordered to be executed and burned by the 3rd Dalai Lama and Altan Khan. The Ongniud and Qorchin eastern Mongol tribes strongly practiced shamanism and were fiercely opposing Buddhist proselytization. The Shamans struggled against Neyiči Toyin in contests like over who could cure people from illness and Neyiči Toyin won when he cured Aoha, an ill female shaman and an Ongniud princess with "magic", causing conversion of Mongols. Qorchin prince Tusiyetu Khan then converted and sponsored him. The Ongun idols were b burned after being confiscated from the shamans, commoners and nobles by force. Neyiči Toyin then converted Eastern Mongols to the Yellow school doctrine by building monasteries and reciting holy texts. The Caya Bandida Lama spread the Yellow school among the Oirat Western Mongols by translating Tibetan texts into the Oirat language and an Oirat script he designed himself to fit the Oirat language specifically, not Eastern Mongolian, called clear script. He was also opposed by the "Black Faith" shamanists.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sagaster (Bonn) |first=Klaus |editor1-last=Heirman |editor1-first=Ann |editor2-last=Bumbacher |editor2-first= Stephan Peter |author-link= |date=2007 |title=The Spread of Buddhism |series=Brill's Paperback Collection|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NuOvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=%22Its+most+important+functionaries,+the+shamans,+were+the+natural+enemies+of+the+Lamas,+who+hardly+had+any+chance+to+win+the+hearts+of+the+people+as+long+as+these+shamans+and+their+shamanistic+family+idols%22&source=bl&ots=ocjIz83NQS&sig=ACfU3U2mxVwIa-o8c-3eTCFQCMknPDCb1g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjmk5rmx6_zAhXhmuAKHQMmAdoQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher=BRILL |page= 403, 404 |chapter=THE HISTORY OF BUDDHISM AMONG THE MONGOLS 6.2 Propagation of the dGe-lugs-pa School among Different Mongolian Tribes |isbn=9047420063}}</ref>
The Tibetan Buddhist Lamas operated their proselytizing mission as "cujus regio ejus religio" by converting the Mongol nobles and rulers mainly who would then force their shamanist followers to convert with them. Questions about the Lamas rank and giving them equal status to Mongol nobles were addressed by the Dalai Lama and Altan Khan. A shaman was defeated with "magic" in a contest over converting an Ongnigut princess in eastern Mongolia by Neichi Toyin, a Torgut Buddhist Lama. Many Ongnigut commoners then converted. The Khorchin ruler, Aoba Tushetu Khan converted after a shamaness was converted. He issued orders to forcefully ban shamanism and ordered his people to convert after him. The Lamas conrted rulers and defeated shamansi n contests of ability and theology. The Lamas wer allowed to force convert commoners by their ruling princes. Issues to use dog feces to fumigate shamnesses and shamans, to confusecate the horses of pro-shamanists, to confiscate sheep and horeses of those who worshipped ongon idols and to burn the ongons were given in the 17th century to the Oirats by Jaya Pandita Lama. He translated Tibetan Buddhist texts into Oirat and invented the Oirat clear script. THe Buddhist religion was glorified and exalted, the "White Direction" reigned supreme as shamnic idols were destroyed and shamans were violently assaulted. The ongon idols were burned by the 3rd Dalai Lama with Altan Khan's permission. People were banned from performing shamanic sacrifice slaughters.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bawden |first=C. R. |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Modern History Mongolia Hb |series=Kegan Paul library of Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOcrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=%22Violence+against+the+shamans+and+their+idols+was+exercised+generally%22&source=bl&ots=cYhrhvjc6H&sig=ACfU3U3AEraPXQC_ffh6aJuP-ja6s4QhUw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiRibqXza_zAhVEm-AKHcslCHoQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |edition=revised|publisher=Routledge |page= 32|isbn=1136188223}}</ref>
Altan Khan forced his Mongol people to please the Tibetan Buddhist deity Mahakala by making meatless sacrifices to him, force them to burn their ongon idols, to revere Tibetan Buddhist Lamas and forbade them from sacrificing animals. These orders were given on pain of banishment, property confiscation or death by execution. Ongons were also ordered destroyed by Neichi Toyin who used his role as a doctor to convert people. One Manchu envoy was rumoured to have been human sacrificed by in 1618 by the Mongol Ligdan Khan. Tibetan Buddhist Lamas acted like a state within a state in Mongolia by becoming part of the ruling class when attacking the shamans. Tibetan Buddhist Lama of Urga, the Jubtsundamba Khtuktu was recognized as ruler of Mongols by the Qing and serfs, herds, and blocks were owned by the Lamas as well as the ability to grant titles. Jebtsundamba Khtuktu acted as temporal authority when a Mongol rebellion against the Qing was crushed and when the Qing took over the Khalkha Mongols. The Mongol nobility and Lamas conspired to control power and the 4th Dalai Lama came from the Tumet family and the 1st Jebtsundamba Khutuktu was Tushetu Khan Gombodorji's 15 year old son in 1650 in Khalkha Mongolia. The Jebtsundamba Khtuktu had 7 reincarnations after the 1st one. The Manchu Qing Qianlong emperor forbade the Jebtsundamba Khtuktu to be incarnated among Mongols by issuing a decree that only a Tibetan would become Jebtsundamda Khutuktu in order to crush the power nobles since the reincarnation would not come from Mongol nobility and descendants of Genghis Khan. A Torgut noble family had provided Neichi Toyin and a Khoshut noble family in 1599 bore Jaya Pandita. Tibetan Buddhist Lamas and Mongol princes gave titles to each other in order to boost their political power and image. Altan Khan gave a title to Dalai Lama and the Mongol emperor Daraisun Kudeng was forced to give the Khan title to Altan. Tibetan Buddhist Lamas bestowed multiple titles linking Mongol Ligdan Khan to earlier Mongol and Chinese emperors. He was called "The blessed Ligdan, Wise Emperor of the Great Yuan" after Kublai Khan and "The Chakravarti Saint, Emperor T'ang T'ai-tsung" after the 2nd Tang dynasty emperor Tang Taizong. He was also called "Blessed Ligdan, Marvellous Genghis Daiming Setsen, Conqueror of the Directions, Powerful Chakravarti, T'ang Ta'i-tsung, God of Gods, Khormusda of all within the world, Turner of the Golden Wheel, King of the Law". The Yellow Hat Buddhist sect and Mongol Khans were linked in this manner. Khalkha Zasagtu Khan gave the title to Oirat Jaya Pandita Lama while the Dalai Lama gave the title to the Khalkha Jaya Pandita. Both Layman and religious clergy could give titles to Lamas. Buddhist clergy gave consecrations to noble laymen and Lamas did special rituals for these nobles. Dalai Lama gave consecrations to a Jebtsundama Khutuktu's father Chakhundorji (in 1663), who was a descendant of Altan Khan who had the same ritual performed for him in 1577. The previous Jebtsundamba Khtuktu was the son of Tushetu Khan. <ref>{{cite book |last=Bawden |first=C. R. |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Modern History Mongolia Hb |series=Kegan Paul library of Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOcrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=%22If+they+did+not+give+up+their+old+customs+they+would+be+executed+or+have+their+property+confiscated+or+be+banished+from+their+pastures%22&source=bl&ots=cYhrhvl56O&sig=ACfU3U1ka5kL4JxyQU847UIDYUewPBNwvw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjw6e2G0q_zAhUpL1kFHQG2CQgQ6AF6BAgEEAM#v=onepage&q=%22If%20they%20did%20not%20give%20up%20their%20old%20customs%20they%20would%20be%20executed%20or%20have%20their%20property%20confiscated%20or%20be%20banished%20from%20their%20pastures%22&f=false |archive-url=https://is.muni.cz/el/1421/jaro2015/RLB392/um/jerryson_2007_2.txt|archive-date=August 3 2021|location= |edition=revised |publisher=Routledge |page= 33, 34|isbn=1136188223}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Baumann |first=Brian Gregory |author-link= |date=2008 |title= Divine Knowledge: Buddhist Mathematics According to the Anonymous Manual of Mongolian Astrology and Divination|volume=Volume 20 of Brill's Inner Asian Library|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RE_8dmVH2dsC&pg=PA315&lpg=PA315&dq=%22This+disparity+we+see+between+rhetoric+and+reality+when+it+comes+to+the+Gelugpa+and+the+other+Buddhist+sects%22&source=bl&ots=nnDKbP2Es4&sig=ACfU3U2WdqAWts35vfV66EJh_fzdb9SsMA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjngciq2K_zAhXGnOAKHfnaDbUQ6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL |page=315, 316 |isbn=9004155759}}</ref>
The Tibetan religion of Bon which is the opponent religion of Buddhism in Tibet, elaborated its theology in a mirror image opposite reaction to Tibetan Buddhism. Bon-po make counterclockwise motions around temples and in prayer wheels while Tibetan Buddhists to it clockwise. The bon foudner Shen-rab has 12 deeds and so does the Buddha. It was said in Tibetan Buddhist texts that the native Tibetan Buddhists were subdued and conquere and suboordinated by force by Padmasambhava. He built Samyas monastery after subduing demons who wantt to oppose it. However, in Mongolia the method used in Tibet to convert people was not followed. Instead of native Mongol deities being incorporated as Buddha incarnations or incorporated as a Buddhism precursor or being subdued by yogins, the Mongol shamanisci religion was fiercely persecuted with violence and declared a false religoin and creed when Tibetan Buddhists converted Mngols in the 16th-17th centuries. Tibetan Buddha Mahakala images replaced traditional Mongol ancestral felt onggod image idols, rewards were given for memorizing dharanis and those who worshipped shaman nidols were fined while shamanic ritual articles and idol images were burned. Traditional Mongol shamanisic rituals were entirely replaced by Tibetan Buddhist ones and wiped out.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atwood |first1=Christopher P |last2= |first2= |date=1996 |title=Buddhism and Popular Ritual in Mongolian Religion: A Reexamination of the Fire Cult |url=https://jstor.org/stable/3176686
|archive-url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/225167994.pdf|archive-date= August 3 2021
|journal= History of Religions |volume=36 |issue=2 |publisher=University of Chicago Press|pages=112–39|page=136 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref>
Tengrist shamanic implements like bird feathers, reindeer horn and wolf teeth talismans were burned by Tibetan Buddhist lamas after they attacked the shamans and converted the people in Buryatia, Tuva and Transbaikal.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gruzdeva |first=Anna |date=October 14, 2015 |title= Datsans, lamas and shamans: 7 facts about Buddhism in Siberia |url=https://rbth.com/travel/2015/14/10/datsans_lamas_and_shamans_7_facts_about_buddhism_in_siberia |work=Russia Beyond the Headlines |location= |access-date=}}</ref> In 1587 Abutay Sayn Haan (Khan) of the Halha (Khalkha) and in 1577 Altan Haan (Khan) of the Tumud chose to declare Tibetan Buddhist lamaism as the religion of the Mongols against shamanism as shamanism was in decline and as a political tool for control. The Tibetan Buddhist lama-priests, and Mongol Khans in west and south Mongolia fiercely persecuted traditional Mongolian Tegnrist shamanism, burning their ritual implements and banning their traditional animal flesh sacrifices and legally privileging the Lamaist Buddhist against Shamanists. Shamans were burned with dog feces and slaughtered. Ming China and the Manchus in the Qing dynasty both supported the spread of Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism of the Yellow and Red hat sects among Mongols in order to weaken the Mongols. Roy Chapman Andrews said ''“There were several contributory causes of the decay of the Mongol race, but the primal factor was the introduction of Lamaism. Before this they were shamanists, worshipping the spirits of Nature… in rocks, trees, and mountains.”''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mongolianstore.com/the-imposition-of-lamaism/ |title=The Imposition of Lamaism ||author=Mongulai|last= |first= |date=Mar 5, 2020 |website=Mongulai : Leading Craftsmanship of the Nomads |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> Traditional Tibetan shamanism survived in remote rural geographic areas in the Himalayas in Nepal and Tibet away from the urban centers where Lama Buddhist dominated, since the Lamaist Buddhist violently persecuted shamans in Mongolia and Tibet.<ref>{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Larry |author-link= |date= |title=Tibetan Shamanism : ECSTASY AND HEALING |url=https://penguinrandomhouse.com/books/536655/tibetan-shamanism-by-larry-peters/ |location= |publisher=Penguin Random House |page= |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite books |url=https://vajrabookshop.com/categories/shamanism/products/tibetan-shamanism-ecstasy-and-healing |title= Tibetan Shamanism: Ecstasy and Healing |last= Peters |first=Larry |date= |last= |first= |publisher=Vajra Publiations |access-date= |isbn=9781623170301|quote=}}</ref> One of the shamans who was attacked by the Tibetan Buddhists was called the "Dark Old Man". Shamans were made illegal by the first Mongol constitution in the 20th century as well as by Atan Khan and the 3rd Dalai Lama. The Tibetan Buddhist deity Mahakala was invoked when shaman ongghot idols were burned by the 3rd Dalai Lama Sonam Gyatsho and Altan Khan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://asianart.com/mongolia/9.html |title= The Dark Old Man|last= |first= |date= |website=The Asian Art Museum |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>Published: Tsultem, Mongolian Sculpture, pl. 205; Rintschen, "Urgaer Pantomimen," fig. 4</ref>
There are some shamans in Tuva who are against Tibetan Buddhism and order their followers to not practice Buddhist rituals or got monasteries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://buddhistdoor.net/features/tuva-sacred-land-of-turkic-shamanism-and-tibetan-buddhism |title= Tuva: Sacred Land of Turkic Shamanism and Tibetan Buddhism|last=Klasanova |first=Lyudmila |date=| 2016-12-16 |website=Buddhistdoor Global |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hesse |first1=Klaus |last2= |first2= |date=1987 |title=On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Anthropological Perspective |url=https://jstor.org/stable/40463470 |journal=Anthropos |publisher=Anthropos Institut|volume=82 |issue=4/6 |pages=403–13 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hyer |first1=Paul |last2= |first2= |date=1981 |title=The Dalai Lamas and the Mongols |url=https://jstor.org/stable/43300033 |journal= The Tibet Journal|volume=6 |issue=4 |publisher=Library of Tibetan Works and Archives|pages= 3–12 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Kevin B. |author-link= |date=2016 |title=Sky Shamans of Mongolia: Meetings with Remarkable Healers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wksyCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT57&lpg=PT57&dq=lama+buddhist+persecuted+shamans+burned&source=bl&ots=oznh7UjiPo&sig=ACfU3U2cTyo-VoviBJigw7Iqzbdg6w0eow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigk8iY78LyAhXqguAKHcE-AaUQ6AF6BAgREAM |location= |publisher= North Atlantic Books|page= |isbn=1583949984}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last= Ujeed |first=Uranchimeg Boijigin |date=March 2009 |title=Indigenous Efforts and Dimensions of Mongolian Buddhism — Exemplified by the Mergen Tradition— |type=Thesis submitted in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy |chapter= |publisher=Department of the Study of Religions Faculty o f Arts and Humanities School of Oriental and African Studies University of London |docket= |oclc= |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/28766/1/10672934.pdf |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Heissig |first=Wwalter|editor1-last=Sneath |editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Kaplonski|editor2-first=Christopher |author-link= |date=1953 |title=The History of Mongolia (3 Vols.) |chapter=A Mongolian Source to the Lamaist Suppression of Shamanism in the 17th Century’|url=https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/edcoll/9789004216358/B9789004216358-s029.xml |location= |publisher= |page= 569–609|isbn=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004216358_029}}</ref><ref>https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004216358/B9789004216358-s029.xml Anthropos 48, No 4, 1953, pp. 1–29]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=KOLLMAR-PAULENZ |first1= KARÉNINA |last2= |first2= |date=2012 |title=The Invention of “Shamanism” in 18th Century Mongolian Elite Discourse |url=https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:-Yj7uAqkz3gJ:cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.hdl_11089_3352/c/No_1_2012.90-106.pdf |journal=ROCZNIK ORIENTALISTYCZNY |volume=LXV |issue=1 |pages=90–106 |doi=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.hdl_11089_3352/c/No_1_2012.90-106.pdf |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atwood |first1=Christopher P |last2= |first2= |date=1996 |title= “Buddhism and Popular Ritual in Mongolian Religion: A Reexamination of the Fire Cult|url=https://jstor.org/stable/3176686|archive-url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=ealc |archive-date1=2021|archive-url2=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/225167994.pdf|archive-date2=2021 |journal=History of Religions |publisher=University of Chicago Press|volume= 36|issue=2 |pages=112–39 |doi=|publisher=Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations |access-date=}}</ref>
Tibetan Buddhist Lamas used the derogatory label "black shamanism" for Mongol shamanism to create negative sentiment towards it. Tibetan Buddhist monks infected children with syphilis by molesting them under the Bogd Khan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20070627041930/https://tengerism.org/lamaism.html |title= |last= |first= |date= |website=tengerism |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}https://aryasamajvsbuddhism.wordpress.com/tag/shamanism/ }</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Tashi |first=Kelzang (Tingdzin) |date=March 2020 |title=Contested past, challenging future: an ethnography of pre-Buddhist Bon religious practices in central Bhutan |type= A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The School of Archaeology and Anthropology|chapter= |publisher=The Australian National University |docket= |oclc= |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/202646/7/Tashi%20REVISED%202020.pdf |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Halfhill |first=Dana |date=2017 |title=Mapping the Buddhist Lands of Russia: Understanding the Post-Soviet Sangha and Its Political Connections |type= A thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in International Studies: Russia, Eastern Europe and Central Asian Studies|chapter= |publisher= University of Washington
|docket= |oclc= |url=https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/39891/Halfhill_washington_0250O_17404.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-url=
https://web.archive.org/web/20191003113759/https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/39891/Halfhill_washington_0250O_17404.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|archive-date=2020|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Vinogradov |first=Andrei |date=2003 |title=AK JANG IN THE CONTEXT OF ALTAI RELIGIOUS
TRADITION |type=A Thesis submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research In partial fulfillment of the Requirements For the Master’s Degree In the Department of Religious Studies and Anthropology University of Saskatchewan |chapter= |publisher= Department of Religious Studies and Anthropology University of Saskatchewan |docket= |oclc= |url=https://harvest.usask.ca/bitstream/handle/10388/etd-01192005-154827/tezispdf.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bjerken |first1=Zeff |last2= |first2= |date=1 January 2004 |title=Exorcising the Illusion of Bon Shamans: A Critical Genealogy of Shamanism in Tibetan Religions |url= https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/1325305.pdf|journal=Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines |volume= October 200| publisher=Apollo|issue= 6|pages= |doi= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tricycle.org/beginners/decks/tibetan/ |title= What is the history of Tibetan Buddhism?|last= |first= |date= |website=Tricycle : Buddhism for Beginners |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erschbamer |first1=Marlene |last2= |first2= |date=mis en ligne le 04 mars 2019 |title=Taming of supernatural entities and animal sacrifice. The synthesis of Tibetan Buddhism and local shamanistic traditions in Northern Sikkim (India) |url=https://journals.openedition.org/emscat/3915 |journal= Études mongoles et sibériennes, centrasiatiques et tibétaines [En ligne]|volume=50 |issue=2019 |pages= |doi= https://doi.org/10.4000/emscat.3915
|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Humphrey |first1=Caroline |last2= |first2= |date= 1999|title=Shamans in the City |url=https://jstor.org/stable/2678275 |journal= Anthropology Today|volume=15 |issue=3 |publisher= [Wiley, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]|pages=3–10|doi= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Brown |first=David |date= July 18, 1995 |title=TRADITIONAL HEALING RETURNS TO TUVA |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/wellness/1995/07/18/traditional-healing-returns-to-tuva/e9f55a79-6001-4595-9f63-6fd749fb50c3/ |work=Washington Post |location= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Васильевна |first1=Монгуш Марина |last2= |first2= |date= 28 февраля 2012|title= Old and new religions in Tuva|url= https://tuva.asia/journal/issue_13/4476-mongush-mv-2.html |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=ALTERS |first1=PHILIP W |last2= |first2= |date= 2001|title=Religion in Thva: Restoration or Innovation? |url=https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/29-1_023.pdf |journal= Religion, State & Society|volume=29 |issue=1 |pages= |doi= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://cambridgescholars.com/news/item/book-in-focus-shamanic-dialogues-with-the-invisible-dark-in-tuva-siberia-the-cursed-lives |title= Shamanic Dialogues with the Invisible Dark in Tuva, Siberia : The Cursed Lives|last= |first= |date=26th July 2021 |website= |publisher= |last=Zorbas|first=Konstantinos |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Shamanism_in_Mongolia_and_Tibet |title=Shamanism in Mongolia and Tibet |last= |first= |date= |website= Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chagatai_Khanate&action=edit§ion=6
This is an account of a massacre of Catholics in the Chagatai city of Almaliq in Xinjiang in 1339 or 1340, after the Chagatai Khanate converted to Sunni Islam. One Chagatai Khan overthrow his Sunni Muslim relative and tried to restore the Chagatai Khanate back to its non-Muslim status, persecuting Sunni Islam and letting Christians rebuilt Churches, but another Sunni Chagatai, Ali Sultan took over the Chagatai Khanate again and started massacring Catholics and non-Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last= Yule|first= Henry|author-link= |date=1913 |title=Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China|url=https://archive.org/details/cathaywaythither03yule/page/30/mode/2up|location= |publisher=Printed for the Hakluyt society |page= |isbn=https://twitter.com/Matthews2410/status/1423282880512413696}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seven_Military_Classics&action=edit
The Art of War was translated into Tangut with commentary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Galambos |first=Imre |date= |title= Studies in Manuscript Cultures|volume=6chapter=Translating Chinese Tradition and Teaching Tangut Culture : Manuscripts and Printed Books from Khara-khoto|url=https://degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110453959/pdf |location= Berlin/Boston |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH |page=8, 76, 87, 177, 190, 286 |isbn= 978-3-11-044406-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shi |first=Jinbo|others= Li Hansong|date=2020 |volume=40 of Languages of Asia|title= Tangut Language and Manuscripts: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WlTqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47&dq=%22largest+group+of+texts+in+the+tangut+corpus%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjo6s76uPWEAxVMYPEDHQXbDYQQ6AF6BAgIEAI |publisher=BRILL |page=47 |chapter=2 Tangut Manuscripts|isbn=9004414541|doi=10.1163/9789004414549_004 }}</ref> The Art of War was studied by medieval Japanese during internal civil wars in Japan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Knutsen |first=Roald |date= 2006 |title=Sun Tzu and the Art of Medieval Japanese Warfare |url= https://brill.com/view/title/19377 |publisher= Brill Academic Pub |edition=First Edition|isbn=978-19-05-24600-7 |doi=10.1163/9789004213524 }}</ref><ref>https://www.amazon.com/Sun-Tzu-Medieval-Japanese-Warfare/dp/1905246005</ref>
Chinese military works like Su Shu, San Liu, Liu Tao and Art of War were translated into Manchu.<ref>{{cite book |author= Shou-p'ing Wu Ko|others=Alexander Wylie|date=1855 |title=Translation (by A. Wylie) of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language (by Woo Kĭh Show-ping, revised and ed. by Ching Ming-yuen Pei-ho) with intr. notes on Manchu literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdAOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR36&dq=%22statistics+of+the+ming+dynasty%22+completed&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwitpPvqtfWEAxXV3QIHHVeVCs0Q6AF6BAgLEAI |page= xxxvi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Shou-p'ing Wu Ko|others=Alexander Wylie|date=1855 |title=Translation (by A. Wylie) of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language (by Woo Kĭh Show-ping, revised and ed. by Ching Ming-yuen Pei-ho) with intr. notes on Manchu literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdAOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR39&dq=%22discourse+on+the+art+of+war%22+paita&hl=de&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjdxcy5tvWEAxVM8gIHHdjtAwIQ6AF6BAgLEAI |page= xxxix }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Möllendorff|first= P. G. Von |date= 1890 |journal=Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for the Year 1889-90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZhFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA40&dq=%22military+code,+said+to+be+written+by%22&hl=de&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwivmbT1tvWEAxUQxQIHHaLaD8IQ6AF6BAgGEAI |volume=XXIV |location= Shanghai|publisher=The Branch|page=40}}</ref><ref>DURRANT, STEPHEN. “MANCHU TRANSLATIONS OF CHOU DYNASTY TEXTS.” Early China, vol. 3, 1977, pp. 52–54. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23351361.</ref> Manchus used Manchu translations of the Chinese novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms to learn military strategy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105180631/https://babelstone.co.uk/SanguoYanyi/TextualHistory/Manchu.html |title=The Textual History of Sanguo Yanyi : The Manchu Translation |last= West|first=Andrew |website=Babel Stone}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manchu_shamanism&action=edit§ion=3
Guan Yu was worshiped as Guwan Mafa in the Manchu shamanistic religion.<ref>{{cite book |last= Elliott|first= Mark C. |date=2001 |title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA239&dq=sacrificed+guwan+mafa&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiN7JKGs_WEAxWclP0HHcDaAgMQ6AF6BAgHEAI|edition=illustrated, new edition|publisher=Stanford University Press |page=239 |isbn=0804746842}}</ref> The Chinese god Shangdi and Buddha were both listed as deities in the Manchu shamanistic cult created by the Qing government but Shangdi was given a higher rank and the Manchus added Buddha only as an additional deity to their pantheon and did not seek Buddha's aid when in distress so they were not true Buddhists.<ref>{{cite book |last= Harlez |first= C. De |date=1896 |title=The New World: A Quarterly Review of Religion, Ethics and Theology, Band 5 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq8vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=sacrificed+guwan+mafa&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiN7JKGs_WEAxWclP0HHcDaAgMQ6AF6BAgKEAI |publisher= Houghton, Mifflin and Company|page=46 |chapter=The Religion of the Manchu Tartars }}</ref> Nurhaci and Guan Yu were equated with each other.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haar|first=B. J. ter |date=2017|title=Guan Yu: The Religious Afterlife of a Failed Hero |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7Q1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA182&lpg=PA182&dq=%22lord+guan+cults+in+connection%22&source=bl&ots=Qq38KMaA0x&sig=ACfU3U1JR6CLClCIEknNFObpaTfLv9fLDA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiY7u_kyvWEAxX49QIHHdEjDGoQ6AF6BAgPEAM|edition=illustrated|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=182|isbn= 0198803648|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198803645.003.0006}}</ref> It was said that the Qing elevated the status of Guan Yu since he was respected by Mongols.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105180631/https://babelstone.co.uk/SanguoYanyi/TextualHistory/Manchu.html |title=The Textual History of Sanguo Yanyi : The Manchu Translation |last= West|first=Andrew |website=Babel Stone}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yenisei_Kyrgyz&action=edit§ion=3
Yenisei Kyrgyz reaped crops with iron sickles and grew hemp, wheat, millet and barley as they irrigated farmland in the basin of Minusinsk and used ploughs and mattocks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Naumov |first=Igor V.|editor-last= Collins |editor-first=David |author-link= |date=2006 |edition=illustrated|title=The History of Siberia |series=
Routledge Studies in the History of Russia and Eastern Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4498YjPq6mgC&pg=PA40&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgCEAI |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=40 |isbn=1134207034}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Haywood |first= Anthony |author-link= |date=2012 |title=Siberia: A Cultural History |edition=revised|series=Landscapes of the imagination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rr6_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgFEAI |location= |publisher= Andrews UK Limited|page= |isbn=1908493364}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Vajda |first=Edward J. |author-link= |date=2013 |title= Yeniseian Peoples and Languages: A History of Yeniseian Studies with an Annotated Bibliography and a Source Guide|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CjcpD68fFekC&pg=PA379&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgLEAI|location= |publisher=Routledge |page=379 |isbn=113683740X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tikhomirov |first= Andrey |author-link= |date=2020 |title=Ethnogenesis of the Turkic peoples. Languages, peoples, migrations, customs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wVrSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgHEAI|location= |publisher= |Litrespage= |isbn=5042343997}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Johanson |first= Lars |author-link= |date= 2021|title= Turkic|series=Cambridge Language Surveys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huk9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT155&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgJEAI |location= |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= |isbn=1009038214}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Reichl |first=Karl |author-link= |date=2018 |title= Routledge Revivals: Turkic Oral Epic Poetry (1992): Traditions, Forms, Poetic Structure|series=Routledge Revivals|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HUlaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT19&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgGEAI|location= |publisher= Routledge|page= |isbn=1351123769}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Güzel |editor1-first=Hasan Celâl |editor2-last=Oğuz |editor2-first=Cem |editor3-last=Karatay |editor3-first=Osman |others=Contributor Murat Ocak|author-link= |date= 2002|title= The Turks: Early ages|volume=Volume 1 of The Turks, Osman Karatay, ISBN 9756782552, 9789756782552Volume 1 of “The” Turks: Early Ages, Hasan Celâl Güzel|edition=reprint|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGBtAAAAMAAJ&q=huns+yenisei+turkic&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgEEAI |location= |publisher= Yeni Türkiye|page=228 |isbn=9756782560}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date=2003 |title=Archivum Ottomanicum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF5pAAAAMAAJ&q=huns+yenisei+turkic&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgKEAI |location= |publisher= Mouton.|page=16 |isbn=3447047801}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Maenchen-Helfen |first=Otto |editor-last=Knight|editor-first=Max |author-link= |date= 1973|title=The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrUdgzSICxcC&pg=PA415&dq=huns+yenisei+turkic&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjuz4rnwN31AhUDR_EDHTEBB2UQ6AF6BAgDEAI |location= |publisher= University of California Press|page=415 |isbn=0520015967}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xiongnu&action=edit§ion=1
The label of Hun was used for the Xiongnu by the Sogdians.<ref>{{cite book |last=Róna-Tas |first= András |author-link= |date= 1999|title=Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4hZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA204&lpg=PA204&dq=%22recent+research+has+put+it+beyond+doubt+that+the+sogdians,+who+controlled+trade%22&source=bl&ots=lQ0lWXExpy&sig=ACfU3U0c1-icmnt-yFrQHvWGAfmrHkI3fw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiv5-Gy-t31AhWBD-wKHV5IDA4Q6AF6BAgCEAM |location= |publisher= |Central European University Presspage= 204 |isbn=9633865727}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vaissiere |first= Etienne de la |editor-last=Maas|editor-first= Michael |author-link= |date=2015 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila |edition=illustrated|series=Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=67dUBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180&dq=attila+hun+sogdian&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj444DK-t31AhVYlnIEHX52CiYQ6AF6BAgDEAI |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=180 |isbn=1107021758|chapter=Part II ATTILA AND THE WORLD AROUND ROME 10 : THE STEPPE WORLD AND THE RISE OF THE HUNS|chapter=the contrary, the use of the name Hun.a in these texts has a precise political reference to the Xiongnu and the period ... The second text is a letter written by a Sogdian merchant named Nanaivande, who, like Zhu Fahu, came from the ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Ian |author-link= |date=2019 |title=Attila the Hun: Arch-Enemy of Rome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WU4IEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT33&dq=attila+hun+sogdian&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj444DK-t31AhVYlnIEHX52CiYQ6AF6BAgGEAI |location= |publisher= Casemate Publishers|page= |isbn=1473890322|quote=The Xiongnu Connection The evidence linking the Huns to the Xiongnu comes primarily from two texts: one written by Zhu Fahu ... a Sogdian transcription of 'Hun.a', which thanks to Zhu Fahu are linked to the Xiongnu.10 As a consequence, ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Rollinger |editor1-first=Robert |editor2-last=Degen |editor2-first=Julian |editor3-last= Gehler|editor3-first=Michael |author-link= |date=2020 |series=Universal- und kulturhistorische Studien. Studies in Universal and Cultural History|title=Short-term Empires in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3HpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA322&dq=attila+hun+sogdian&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj444DK-t31AhVYlnIEHX52CiYQ6AF6BAgHEAI |location= |publisher= Springer Nature|page=322 |isbn=3658294353|quote=Therefore, they referred to themselves as “Huns” (Sogdian xwn), a strategy of self-representation they had in common with the Kidarites and Alkhan in Central Asia and with Attila's Huns in the west. This reference is not necessarily a ...}}</ref>
The Huns conquered Sogdiana in the 3rd century AD and later the Turks and Arabs conquered Sogdiana.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Whitfield |editor1-first=Susan |editor2-last= Sims-Williams|editor2-first= Ursula |author=British Library |date= 2004|edition=illustrated|title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA108&dq=attila+hun+sogdian&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj444DK-t31AhVYlnIEHX52CiYQ6AF6BAgKEAI |location= |publisher= Serindia Publications, Inc.|page=108 |isbn=193247613X|quote=The Sogdians had their own spoken language belonging to the Iranian group and , from about the first century BC ... By the third century AD Sogdiana was again overrun by nomads , this time Huns ( distant cousins of those of Attila ) ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Newman |first=John Henry |author-link= |date=1854 |title=Lectures on the History of the Turks in Its Relation to Christianity |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rYs2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA292&dq=attila+hun+sogdian&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj444DK-t31AhVYlnIEHX52CiYQ6AF6BAgEEAI|location= |publisher= |J. Duffypage=292 |isbn=|quote=... Zoroaster ( Prideaux ) , Alexander's campaign in Sogdiana ( Clinton ) , 633 529 508 492 329 A. D. 100 376 . ... his Huns ravage the Roman Empire , Mission of St. Leo to Attila , Chosroes the First , the Persian King , in Sogdiana ...}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yu_Garden&action=edit§ion=1
There are Jesuits buried in Yu garden. <ref> {{cite |date= December 2006 |title=Jesuit Gravestones in Shanghai|url=http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/scholarship.php?searchterm=008_jesuit.inc&issue=008 |journal=CHINA HERITAGE QUARTERLY |volume= |issue=8 |pages= |issn= 1833-8461 |journal=China Heritage Project, The Australian National University |access-date=}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty&action=edit§ion=8
Kublai Khan issued orders banning Yuan soldiers from forcing Southern Song women to marry them in 1278. Menggu Baer (Meng-ku-pa -erh)'s Mongol daughter married Han Chinese man Shi Ke (Shih Ko), a son of Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse).<ref>{{cite book |last= Xiao|first= Qiqing |volume=77 of East Asian Monograph Series|issue= 77 of Harvard East Asian monographs|issn=0073-0483|date=1978 |title=The Military Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NV3fAAAAMAAJ&q=In+an+order+issued+in+1278+,+officers+and+men+in+the+newly+conquered+south+were+prohibited+from+forcing+native+women+to+marry+them+but+were+allowed+to+marry+natives+peacefully+...&dq=In+an+order+issued+in+1278+,+officers+and+men+in+the+newly+conquered+south+were+prohibited+from+forcing+native+women+to+marry+them+but+were+allowed+to+marry+natives+peacefully+...&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkiOSgvYD_AhUEVPEDHb9dBP4Q6AF6BAgJEAI |edition=illustrated |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |page=146 |isbn=0674574613}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shi_Tianze&action=edit§ion=2
Menggu Baer (Meng-ku-pa -erh)'s Mongol daughter married Han Chinese man Shi Ke (Shih Ko), a son of Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse).<ref>{{cite book |last= Xiao|first= Qiqing |volume=77 of East Asian Monograph Series|issue= 77 of Harvard East Asian monographs|issn=0073-0483|date=1978 |title=The Military Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NV3fAAAAMAAJ&q=In+an+order+issued+in+1278+,+officers+and+men+in+the+newly+conquered+south+were+prohibited+from+forcing+native+women+to+marry+them+but+were+allowed+to+marry+natives+peacefully+...&dq=In+an+order+issued+in+1278+,+officers+and+men+in+the+newly+conquered+south+were+prohibited+from+forcing+native+women+to+marry+them+but+were+allowed+to+marry+natives+peacefully+...&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkiOSgvYD_AhUEVPEDHb9dBP4Q6AF6BAgJEAI |edition=illustrated |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |page=146 |isbn=0674574613}}</ref>
Many Han Chinese families in northern China from the Jin dynasty defected to the Mongols after the 1211 Mongol attack against the Jin. These Han Chinese families being indispensable and instrumental in Mongol empire rule and administration in sedentary parts of China. One of these families was the Shi family led by Shi Bingzhi (Shih Ping-chih and his sons including Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse) in autumn 1213 when they defected at Cho-chou to Mongol general Muqali's lieutenant Se'unidei, with Shi Bingzhi leading thousands of followers under him to defect after learning voluntary defectors would h ave their lives spared. The Shi family were influenccal and wealthy in their area south of Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Yongqing (Yung-ch'ing) hamlet of Xinglong li (Hsing-lung li).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false |format=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |quote=ISSN 0571-320X}}</ref>
Northern China was governed in the Mongol empire by hereditary Han Chinese feudal lords and Mongol nobles who were each assigned fief domains in 1236 under Ogedei. The term "hereditary lords" (shihou) were applied to them. They controlled fiscal, military and administrative manners in their domains.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=false |format=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |quote=ISSN 0571-320X}}</ref>
Shi Tianze was closer to Ogedei's youngest brother Tolui, than to Ogedei since Zhending (Chen-ting) was the Tolui fief in northern China. More than other fiefs in northern China, Zhending had the ability to field the biggest army and had the most population due to Shi Tianze's rule over it since Princess Sorqaqtani (died in 1252), the widow of Tolui who received Zhending in 1236 appointed Shi Tianzi to administer the fief in her stead. She withdrew Mongol soldiers stationed in the fief at Shi Tianze's request since they were disrupting management. Han Chinese from the Zhending fief were recruited by Sorqaqtani to serve on her staff and unusually for Mongol nobles, she was personally interested in the fief. Shi Tianze received Weizhou (Weizhou)'s 5 cities as his own fief in 1251 as a grant from her son Mongke Khan. Kublai was the younger brother of Mongke and recruited the Han Chinese military feudal lords Zhang Rou (Chang Jou) and Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse) into his service in addition to Han Chinese literati as advisors when he became viceroy in northern China in 1251. In 1244 he already recruited Han Chinese advisors. Kublai's interest in his family's Zhending fief made him familiar with Shi Tianze and he recruited to his court as advisors Shi Tianze's proteges Li Zhi (Li Chih) and Zhang Dehui (Chang Te-hui).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false |volume=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |ISSN= 0571-320X}}</ref>
Shi Tianze made the transition into becoming a bureaucrat in Kublai's central government away from his previous military administration regional warlord status, urging Kublai to divide civil powers from military powers for the regional feudal warlords including his own family. The Han Chinese hereditary military warlords had hoped one day northern China would be returned to traditional bureaucratic style government which is why they supported Kublai. This meant the end of hereditary privileges in the fiefs and for fiscal, civil and military powers to be centralized in the central government. The provinces Pacification Bureau and the creation of the central government's Secretarial Council by Kublai were moves in this direction. However insecurity and the civil war by Kublai against Ariq boke led to a halt in the process of centralizing the Han Chinese warlord controlled feudal fiefs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false |volume=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |ISSN=0571-320X}}</ref>
Shi Tianze helped in siege warfare and military supplies for the Mongol empire and he helped Kublai restore administration in China to traditional Chinese bureaucracy as he did in Henan. He led Han Chinese forces in the Mongol army that destroyed the Jin dynasty. His relatives in the Shi family like Shi Yuanheng (1264-1317) and Shi Xun continued serving in Yuan dynasty official posts. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsiao |first1=C.C. |editor1-last=Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor de |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=May |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300) |date=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3447033398 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false |volume=Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen : Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens |chapter=3. SHIH T'IEN-TSE (1202-1275) |ISSN= 0571-320X}}</ref>
Shi Tianze's relative Shi Tianlin served in the Mongol empire as a judge at the far western end of the Mongol empire most likely during the conquest of Russia and the Qipchaqs by Batu Khan. A Mongol name was bestowed upon him. He was stopped for 28 years in Central Asia under Qaidu after Mongke Khan sent him there. He came back to China in the yuan dynasty and the Yuan appointed his grandson and son as judges. His spirit way inscription (shendaobei) at his tomb uses Mongol terms like jasagh with Chinese concepts, calling the Analacts of Confucius (Lunyu) as "the jasagh of Confucius" since falu was translated as jasagh. Helachechen, Ladu Duan, Moleqili and Lad Jin were the 4 wives of Shi Tianlin recorded on his shendaobei. His daughters and sons were given a mixture of Turkic, Mongol and Chinese names. Lan Shi, Xiao Jia and Ma San, three Han Chinese villagers were falsely accused of plotting rebellion against the Yuan by Mubarak, a Muslim farmer. The two preceding judges over the case against Mubarak were the Heir Apparent's Bureau judge (duanshiguan) Dorji and Department of State Affairs judge Shi Qaidu, a descendants of Shi Tianlin. The ordered the beating of Alamsha and Mubarak as punishment for their slander. "A dragon-headed cane used by the Jin emperor" was given by Kublai Khan to Shi Tianlin after Shi Tianlin advised Kublai there was nothing to fear from an image of a Song emperor in a statue in a Daoist temple since the Liao dynasty capital of Xijing had statatues of Liao emperors but nothing happened since there was no power in them. The Mongols made offerings of butter and fat to human sized statues on the steppe and kept in their houses felt statues (onggons) so they feared they might have power. Shi Tianlin's grave was in [[Shunzhou]] after he died in 1309. He became [[Yuan Wuzong]]'s Privy councillor and during Batu Khan's western campaign he was tutor to princes and under [[Yuan Chengzong]] he was instructor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodous |first1=Florence |last2= |first2= |date=2017 |title=A Judge at the Crossroads of Cultures: Shi Tianlin |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/201778/1/10.1515_asia-2017-0013.pdf|archive-url1=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-Judge-at-the-Crossroads-of-Cultures%3A-Shi-Tianlin-Hodous/c34fd61bf20d50ee741bf73fcea42939efee0214 |archive-url2=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/asia-2017-0013/html |archive-url3=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/asia-2017-0013/pdf|journal= Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=1137-1151 |doi=https://doi.org/10.1515/asia-2017-0013 |archive-url3=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322867887_A_Judge_at_the_Crossroads_of_Cultures_Shi_Tianlin|archive-date1=2017|archive-date2=2017|archive-date3=2017|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Biran |first=Michal |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State In Central Asia|series=Central Asia Research Forum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AU3jAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20&dq=Shi+Tianlin+judge&source=bl&ots=-p9L1vPWlu&sig=ACfU3U2fU42M7u1QIYTgV-SV1F6RIM_Fcw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZsuXtlInyAhXrFFkFHe6zD8sQ6AEwEHoECBgQAw#v=onepage&q=Shi%20Tianlin%20judge&f=false |location= |publisher= Routledge|page=20 |isbn=1136800379}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Fairey |editor-first=Jack |editor2-last= Farrell|editor2-first=Brian P. |author-link= |date=2018 |title=Empire in Asia: A New Global History: From Chinggisid to Qing |series=Empire in Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC1uDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT14&lpg=PT14&dq=Shi+Tianlin+judge&source=bl&ots=aAcIC7-Wfy&sig=ACfU3U2HiJImoLZXdca9EJ-EOudLOuuqPA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZsuXtlInyAhXrFFkFHe6zD8sQ6AEwEXoECBcQAw#v=onepage&q=Shi%20Tianlin%20judge&f=false |location= |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page= |isbn=1472591224}}</ref>
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty&action=edit§ion=2
Stephen G. Haw debunked George Lane's claim that there was a major Persian community in Hangzhou during the Yuan dynasty. Lane mistook two people with the same name, Ala al-Din, one of whom founded Pheonix mosque and another who helped financially manage Kublai's war in Xinjiang against Qaidu nd never went to Hangzhou. Dr. Lane mistakenly assumed Nestorian Christian, Manihaean and Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho were Muslims, and there is no evidence that it was Persians who built phoenix mosque or any evidence of the ethnicity of the two Ala al-Din's in Yuan service. Dr. Lane wrongly claimed that Semu official Gao Kegong was a Muslim and there is no evidence for him being Persian either. Lane also mistakenly described Turkic Muslim mourners witnessed by Zhou Mi at Hanzhou of being Persian. Lane wrongly claimed Ding Henian was the grandson of Ala al-Din who founded Phoenix mosque when Ding Henian was a great grandson of an official named Ala al-Din and again there is no proof that it was the same Ala al-din since Ding Henian's great grandfather was in Dadu (Beijing) and Shangdu in Inner Mongolia and had nothing to do with Hangzhou.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haw |first1=Stephen G.|date= |title=A Critique of " A Tale of Two Cities: The Liberation of Baghdad and Hangzhou and the Rise of the Toluids " , by George Lane.|url=https://www.academia.edu/36309468/A_Critique_of_A_Tale_of_Two_Cities_The_Liberation_of_Baghdad_and_Hangzhou_and_the_Rise_of_the_Toluids_by_George_Lane =}}</ref>
Lan Shi, Xiao Jia and Ma San, three Han Chinese villagers were falsely accused of plotting rebellion against the Yuan by Mubarak, a Muslim farmer. The two preceding judges over the case against Mubarak were the Heir Apparent's Bureau judge (duanshiguan) Dorji and Department of State Affairs judge Shi Qaidu, a descendants of Shi Tianlin. The ordered the beating of Alamsha and Mubarak as punishment for their slander. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodous |first1=Florence |last2= |first2= |date=2017 |title=A Judge at the Crossroads of Cultures: Shi Tianlin |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/201778/1/10.1515_asia-2017-0013.pdf|archive-url1=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-Judge-at-the-Crossroads-of-Cultures%3A-Shi-Tianlin-Hodous/c34fd61bf20d50ee741bf73fcea42939efee0214 |archive-url2=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/asia-2017-0013/html |archive-url3=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/asia-2017-0013/pdf|journal= Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=1137-1151 |doi=https://doi.org/10.1515/asia-2017-0013 |archive-url3=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322867887_A_Judge_at_the_Crossroads_of_Cultures_Shi_Tianlin|archive-date1=2017|archive-date2=2017|archive-date3=2017|access-date=}}</ref>