Atomism

Atomism, also known as Conventional Atomic Theory or the Discontinuous Theory of Matter, is the ideology that states that all matter is composed of atoms and molecules that are ultramicroscopic, usually less than a billionth of a meter in size (exceptions do exist, like DNA). It is the conventionalist counterpart to Matter-Continuitism.

The most modern form of atomism does not state that atoms are indivisible (like the original Daltonian atomic theory stated), but instead posits that atoms are composed of even smaller subatomic particles (electron, proton, neutron, etc.) which can further be divided into quarks and gluons. The newest theory is the quantum-mechanical theory, which posits that electrons in atoms are part of electron "clouds" of different shapes and sizes (depending on the energy level). A similar model is the Bohr model, which posits that electrons orbit in fixed orbits around the nucleus. Regardless of the model used, most models state that electrons will always attempt to obtain the lowest possible energy ("ground") state.

Moleculeism, or atomic theory if you prefer to call it that, has a long history dating back even earlier than the time of Jesus. The atomist story is long and dirty, involving opposition along the way. Even through all this time and about half of a dozen individual iterations, atomic theory still thrives to this day, easily differentiable from its details from two centuries ago.

See Philosophical Atomism on the Philosophyball Wiki for more information on this.

In Ancient Greece, during the first few centuries BCE, there was a philosophical strain that purported that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles, called "atoms", derived from the Greek word atomos (ατομον), meaning "indivisible". In its cradle, atomism was considered mere philosophy, and many prominent philosophers, including the likes of Aristotle, were opposed to it, in support of the "continuous theory of matter", the belief that matter could be infinitely divided without end.

Leucippus is credited with being the inventor of atomism, with Democritus being a major proponent of it. Democritus believed that atoms are too small for the human eye to detect, that they compose all matter, that they are infinitely plentiful, that they have always been around, and that they come in an infinite variety and come in an infinite number of shapes–some circles, some cubes, some jagged stars, some hooks, and even yet some eyes. He believed that the shapes of atoms determined taste–more jagged and sharp atoms taste bitter (would be equivalent to denatonium benzoate or quercetin) and that more smooth or rounded atoms taste sweet (think table sugar, xylitol, or zero-calorie sweetener).

Its days were numbered, however; this philosophy was reinforced in alchemy as many substances could be broken down in to other substances that could not be further decomposed (elements). Alchemists reasoned that this behavior was caused by microscopic, indivisible particles making up the matter that they worked with. A ascientist by the name of Antoine Lavoisier managed to split water into hydrogen and oxygen gas at a one-to-eight ratio. The influence of the classical elements in science was slipping rapidly. In 1797, not too long before the development of the first formal atomic theory, Joseph Proust developed the law of definite proportions on the basis of atomism, stating that any given compound must break down into fixed, whole-number ratios of elements, irreducible substances.

Okay, this is the fun part. In 1803, John Dalton composed the first formal atomic theory, proposing a system of 20 irreducible "elementary atoms" as well as "compound atoms", groups of anywhere from two to seven elementary atoms. Water's chemical formula was theorized to be HO, a diatomic compound atom in which oxygen weighed 7 times as much as hydrogen. Atoms were theorized to be hard, indivisible spheres with no component parts.

As some compounds with the same elements had different ratios of their components, Dalton developed the Law of Multiple Proportions, stating that two elements may combine to form distinct compounds, which give different fixed, whole-number ratios of their component elements when decomposed. For example, cracking a liter of methane (CH₄) would yield 1 liter of carbon gas and 4 liters of hydrogen gas (1:4, or 1/5 or 20%) while cracking propane (C₃H₈) would yield 3 liters of carbon gas and 8 liters of hydrogen gas (3:8, or 3/11 or 27%). This problem also fueled opposition to the atomic theory as the law of multiple proportions did not seem universal in the realm of organic chemistry, in which many molecules can have large numbers of atoms.

The Law of Multiple Proportions was seen to be insufficient in differentiating compounds with the same molecular formula but not the same molecular structure. In 1830, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, a Swedish chemist, coined the word "isomerism" to describe this phenomenon. In 1860, Louis Pasteur (a French chemist after whom milk pasteurization is named) hypothesized that molecular isomers share the same molecular formulae but different molecular structures. For example, pentane (C₅H₁₂) has three isomers: linear pentane, isopentane, and neopentane. Linear pentane (a continuous strip of 5 carbon atoms) has a boiling point of 36°C, isopentane (a continous strip of 4 carbon atoms in which a methyl cation is attached to one of the middle carbon atoms) has a boiling point of 27°C, and neopentane (pretty much just a plus shape of carbon atoms, or a strip of 3 atoms in which the middle atom has 2 methyl cations attached) has a boiling point of 9°C. All three compounds have the same molecular formula (C₅H₁₂), but their actual structures differ, causing noticeable differences. In 1874, a Dutch physical chemist named Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff Jr. hypothesized that carbon forms tetrahedral molecules in an attempt to explain how carbon can form the largest and longest molecules (as seen in organic and biological chemistry) in existence.

Later on, in 1871, Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist and inventor, formulated the first "table" of all known elements at the time; there were about 70 of them. This table was used to predict some of the qualities of gallium based on those of aluminum, and "periodic patterns" were found within this miry mess of elements. Mendeleev thought that these patterns proved atomic theory because these patterns manifested on a basis of atomic weight.

As the nineteenth century came to a close, the death knell of the continuous theory of matter and the classical elements' legitimacy in science rang as the atomic theory was universally accepted as scientific fact.

In 1897, J.J. Thomson performed a set of experiments regarding cathode rays–they proved that all electrical charges are multiples of a minute amount of charge. This was interpreted to indicate the existence of an elementary particle of negative charge: the electron. Until then, atoms were thought to be completely indivisible. Thomson's model of the atom, also known as the "plum pudding" model of the atom, theorized that an atom was composed of a positively charged "pudding" with negatively charged electron "plums" on the inside. As these electrons were so small (1,800 less massive than the proton), they were thought to be elementary particles of electrical effects as they had much charge.

In 1911, one of Thomson's students, Ernest Rutherford, ran experiments regarding projecting intense beams of alpha particles at gold foils in order to determine if the positive charge in an atom was spread around (like Thomson thought) or if it was condensed in a very minute nucleus in the center of the atom. As many of the alpha particles reflected off the gold foils, Rutherford concluded that the positive charge in an atom was bound in a very tight space within the center of the atom. He formulated a new model of the atom, claiming that the electrons orbited this positive kernel the same way the planets orbit the sun.

In 1913, while radiochemist Frederick Soddy was experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, the atoms and their products and masses had slight differences, and Margaret Todd coined the term "isotope" to describe the atoms that were different from the rest. In 1932, the neutron was discovered, explaining this phenomenon.

Later on, major shortcoming was found in the planetary (Rutherford) model of the atom, and it was found out that in the case of this model, the electron, a charged particle, would continuously emit electromagnetic radiation, causing the electron to collapse into the nucleus after a period of time. It was also unable to explain the emission spectra of atoms. As the fledgling quantum theory predicted that energy comes in discrete "packets" called quanta, Bohr applied this reasoning to the atom; he postulated that electrons could only occupy certain hard orbital "tracks" around the atom, explaining the emission spectra. The orbits of electrons around the nucleus, being fixed as they were, required that electrons only move between orbits via specific energies of light and that when electrons drop down orbitals, they release only specific wavelengths of light.

The Bohr model is still cited today as the mechanics and mathematics of its successor are simply far too advanced for laymen.

Nowadays (since 1924), the most widely-accepted model of the atom is the Schrodinger model, or quantum-mechanical model of the atom. It theorizes that electrons in atoms occupy distinct "probability clouds" of varying shapes around the nucleus. Schrodinger cooked up an equation that described the electron as a wave function as opposed to a point. In this model, each electron within an atom holds four unique quantum numbers:

• Prinicipal Quantum Number (n): The equivalent of the orbit number in the Bohr model. n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
• Magnetic Quantum Number (l): The number that determines the shape of the orbital cloud that the electron cloud lies in. l = 0, 1,...n-1
• Azimuthal Quantum Number (m): The number that determines the orientation of the orbital cloud that the electron cloud lies in. m = -l to +l
• Spin (s): Either -1/2 or +1/2.

1. Draw a circle.
2. Fill it in red.
3. Draw two smaller white circles outside of the main circle. Make them about 105 degrees apart.
4. Fill them in very light grey.
5. Connect the two small circles to the large circle using a line.
6. Draw eyes on the main ball.

• Newtonism - Believed in atoms before Dalton said so. Based critical thinker!
• Mainstream Idea Jingoism - I don't know about this "rule of the vaccinated" but at least you push moleculeist thought!
• - Claims that molecules exist.
• Scientocracy - Modern conventionalist scientists say molecules exist. For you can divide matter extremely but not infinitely.
• Electrical Chauvinism - Chemistry and electricity have worked together well for centuries; can't say that about a spellbook.

• Potassium Chloride Replacement - I probably wouldn't wipe out sodium from the face of the food world, just sayin'.
• Atomic Primalism - Bruh moment but at least you understand that atoms are real

• Matter-Continuitism - Awful archaic ideas.
• Aristotelianism - Why is matter continuous to you?
• Pseudoscientocracy - Karen, homeopathy does NOT work!
• Alternative Idea Jingoism - You say lies, matter-cont*nuoid.