What is Higher Education for?
Woohyang Sim
WASEDA University1
Woohyang Sim
WASEDA University1
Expansion of Higher Education
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
KSA Kuwait UAE Bahrain Qatar Oman
Figure 1 Higher Education Gross Enrollment Ratio (both sexes) in GCC from 1990–2015
2
Source: Global Gender Gap Index （2016）, World Bank Labor force participation rate (% of population ages 15+) (Modeled ILO estimate)
KSA: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia UAE: United Arab Emirates
In 2015
KSA 64%
Kuwait 32.7%
UAE 19.8%
Bahrain 43.26%
Qatar 14.5%
Oman 33.5%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
KSA Kuwait UAE Bahrain Qatar Oman
Figure 1 Higher Education Gross Enrollment Ratio (both sexes) in GCC from 1990–2015
2
Source: Global Gender Gap Index （2016）, World Bank Labor force participation rate (% of population ages 15+) (Modeled ILO estimate)
KSA: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia UAE: United Arab Emirates
In 2015
KSA 64%
Kuwait 32.7%
UAE 19.8%
Bahrain 43.26%
Qatar 14.5%
Oman 33.5%
GCC women in higher education
55% 56%
58% 59% 58% 58%
61% 61% 61%
57% 56%
53% 52% 52%
70% 71% 70% 70% 69% 69% 69% 68% 68% 69% 69% 69% 69% 70%
67% 66% 66%
64% 65%
69%
62%
59%
51%
59%
71% 71% 72%
60% 61% 60%
66%
68% 68%
70%
78%
70%
56%
60%
65%
73%
77%
72% 73%
68%
70%
73%
75% 76% 76% 76%
65% 64%
71%
48% 49% 50%
52%
55%
53%
51%
49% 48% 48% 49%
47% 47%
52%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
KSA Kuwait UAE Bahrain Qatar Oman
Figure 2 Percentage of Female Student in Government Higher Education in GCC from 2000 to 2013
3
Source: Global Gender Gap Index （2016）, World Bank Labor force participation rate (% of population ages 15+) (Modeled ILO estimate)
In 2013
KSA 52%
Kuwait 70%
UAE 72%（2012）
Bahrain 65%
Qatar 71%
Oman 52%
KSA: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia UAE: United Arab Emirates
55% 56%
58% 59% 58% 58%
61% 61% 61%
57% 56%
53% 52% 52%
70% 71% 70% 70% 69% 69% 69% 68% 68% 69% 69% 69% 69% 70%
67% 66% 66%
64% 65%
69%
62%
59%
51%
59%
71% 71% 72%
60% 61% 60%
66%
68% 68%
70%
78%
70%
56%
60%
65%
73%
77%
72% 73%
68%
70%
73%
75% 76% 76% 76%
65% 64%
71%
48% 49% 50%
52%
55%
53%
51%
49% 48% 48% 49%
47% 47%
52%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
KSA Kuwait UAE Bahrain Qatar Oman
Figure 2 Percentage of Female Student in Government Higher Education in GCC from 2000 to 2013
3
Source: Global Gender Gap Index （2016）, World Bank Labor force participation rate (% of population ages 15+) (Modeled ILO estimate)
In 2013
KSA 52%
Kuwait 70%
UAE 72%（2012）
Bahrain 65%
Qatar 71%
Oman 52%
KSA: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia UAE: United Arab Emirates
GCC women in labour market
Labor Force (Economically Active) Out of Labor Force
(Economically
Inactive)Employed Unemployed
KSA
Male 63.3 3.3 36.7
Female 17.4 5.9 82.6
Kuwait
Male 52.6 4.2 47.4
Female 39.3 5.5 60.7
UAE (Dubai)
Male 62.7 2.4 37.3
Female 35.2 3.5 64.8
Bahrain
Male 85.4 0.5 14.6
Female 39.2 4.2 60.8
Qatar
Male 68.7 0.3 31.3
Female 36.3 0.5 63.7
Oman
Male 85.6 14.5 14.4
Female 30.0 36.2 70.0
4
Source: ILOSTAT, UN-DESA
（％）Table 1 Labor Force Status of GCC in 2015
Labor Force (Economically Active) Out of Labor Force
(Economically
Inactive)Employed Unemployed
KSA
Male 63.3 3.3 36.7
Female 17.4 5.9 82.6
Kuwait
Male 52.6 4.2 47.4
Female 39.3 5.5 60.7
UAE (Dubai)
Male 62.7 2.4 37.3
Female 35.2 3.5 64.8
Bahrain
Male 85.4 0.5 14.6
Female 39.2 4.2 60.8
Qatar
Male 68.7 0.3 31.3
Female 36.3 0.5 63.7
Oman
Male 85.6 14.5 14.4
Female 30.0 36.2 70.0
4
Source: ILOSTAT, UN-DESA
（％）Table 1 Labor Force Status of GCC in 2015
Previous Research
• Most studies dealing with this theme have asked
“why highly educated women cannot get a job”.
Four derived answers from previous research
‐ Rentier economy
‐ Traditional gender role division
‐ Rentier mentality (for both gender)
‐ Low quality of higher education (for both gender)
• But, “then why women want to be highly
educated” was not asked.
(Young:2017;2016;2015, Sim:2016, Ridge:2015, ILO:2015, EY:2015, Pearl Initiative:2015, IMF:2014,
McKinsey&Company:2014, Dubai School of Government:2013, AONHewitt: 2013；2012, Al Masah
Capital:2012, Jelili:2010, Booz&Co:2010, Oxford Strategic Consulting:2010, Kirdar:2010, Findlow:2007,
Kabban&Kothari:2005, Nelson:2004, Roudi-Fahimi&Moghadam:2003)
5
• Most studies dealing with this theme have asked
“why highly educated women cannot get a job”.
Four derived answers from previous research
‐ Rentier economy
‐ Traditional gender role division
‐ Rentier mentality (for both gender)
‐ Low quality of higher education (for both gender)
• But, “then why women want to be highly
educated” was not asked.
(Young:2017;2016;2015, Sim:2016, Ridge:2015, ILO:2015, EY:2015, Pearl Initiative:2015, IMF:2014,
McKinsey&Company:2014, Dubai School of Government:2013, AONHewitt: 2013；2012, Al Masah
Capital:2012, Jelili:2010, Booz&Co:2010, Oxford Strategic Consulting:2010, Kirdar:2010, Findlow:2007,
Kabban&Kothari:2005, Nelson:2004, Roudi-Fahimi&Moghadam:2003)
5
What is Higher Education for?
6
6
Theoretical Framework
Why people strive for academic success?
• Status Attainment theory
（Blau and Duncan 1967; Khoo and Ainsley 2005）
Attain social and economic status through academic achievement
• Status Expression theory
（Amano 1983）
Express one’s social and economic status through academic achievement
7
Why people strive for academic success?
• Status Attainment theory
（Blau and Duncan 1967; Khoo and Ainsley 2005）
Attain social and economic status through academic achievement
• Status Expression theory
（Amano 1983）
Express one’s social and economic status through academic achievement
7
Methodology and Research Design
On-line questionnaire n=1671 Semi-structured interview n=22
Gender Female: 1604 Male: 67 Female
Age 15~47 17~55
Nationality
KSA
UAE
Kuwait
Qatar
Bahrain
Oman
66.8%
10.2%
15.3%
2.5%
3.7%
1.6%
KSA
UAE
Kuwait
Qatar
Bahrain
Oman
27.2%
36.3%
37.8%
4.5%
4.5%
4.5%
Current Status
Student
Employed
Unemployed
90.5%
5.0%
4.5%
Student
Employed
Unemployed
91.5%
4.0%
4.5%
Research Items (1) personal data, (2) educational awareness, (3) educational acts and (4) career awareness based on I-P-O model
8
• An on-line questionnaire was conducted from January to October 2016.
• A semi-structured interview was conducted between October 2016 to May 2017 in
the UAE, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar and Kuwait.
Table 2 Description of respondents
On-line questionnaire n=1671 Semi-structured interview n=22
Gender Female: 1604 Male: 67 Female
Age 15~47 17~55
Nationality
KSA
UAE
Kuwait
Qatar
Bahrain
Oman
66.8%
10.2%
15.3%
2.5%
3.7%
1.6%
KSA
UAE
Kuwait
Qatar
Bahrain
Oman
27.2%
36.3%
37.8%
4.5%
4.5%
4.5%
Current Status
Student
Employed
Unemployed
90.5%
5.0%
4.5%
Student
Employed
Unemployed
91.5%
4.0%
4.5%
Research Items (1) personal data, (2) educational awareness, (3) educational acts and (4) career awareness based on I-P-O model
8
• An on-line questionnaire was conducted from January to October 2016.
• A semi-structured interview was conducted between October 2016 to May 2017 in
the UAE, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar and Kuwait.
Table 2 Description of respondents